Topic: Biology - English Discussions

托福考试假定你初高中美国毕业。基础教育道换成英文体系。

Biology, the study of living things. Food production and disease control. Raise our standard of living.

A Quick Look at the Levels of Biological Organization.

地球三大生态系统

湿地（wetland, 水比较干净，海獭sea otter，海狸beaver）
森林
海洋

生态系统

Savanna 热带草原（非洲中部）
Temperate grasslands 温带草原（俄罗斯/内蒙古）

植被分类

grasses

trees

shrubs 灌木是没有单一明显主干，低矮的木本植物，从近地面的地方就开始丛生出斜向横生的枝干，而具有小干丛立且树冠不定的型态，植株一般比较矮小，不会超过6米；灌木都是多年生，且一般为阔叶植物，少数灌木是针叶植物。此名称不是一分类群，而是植物生长习性的描述，如同乔木、藤木，是形态学用语。

a Bio(一个生命)

What they are?
What they have?
What they do?
What they eat(How they get energy)
How to reproduce?
role in the ecosystem

Other important abiotic factors include chemical nutrients in soil (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium), salinity (saltiness of water), pH (a measure of an environment’s acidity), and dissolved oxygen in bodies of water.

Human

homeostasis 体内平衡

Four types of tissues found in the human body

connective 连接
muscle 肌肉
nervous 神经
epithelial 上皮的

Zoology 动物学

动物门类

carnivore
herbivore
omnivore
marsupial 有袋动物
amphibian 两栖动物
Mammal 哺乳动物
Vertebrate 脊椎动物
cold/warm blooded animal 冷血动物
metabolism 新陈代谢
fossil 化石
remains 遗骸（剩菜,leftovers）
finch 雀类
fungi(decomposers: recycle nutrients)
caterpillar 毛虫，毛虫🐛

蜂类(bee)

colony 种群
hive 蜂巢
queen
drone 雄蜂
mate 配偶/婚配
mating ritual
bee dance 蜂舞

关键种 Keystone species(生态系统中没它就不行)

extirpated 灭绝，消灭的
endangered 濒危的
prey 猎物
predator 掠食者
sea otter
beaver 海狸
seaweed 海草
shelter 庇护所
sea urchins 海胆
abalone 鲍鱼

Animal Behaviors

Animal Behaviors Video for Kids: Imprinting, Instinct, Conditioning, and Imitation Explained

Ethologists, people who study animal behavior. There two kinds of behavior, innate(born with) and learned.

Innate Behavior: Reflex and Instinct

There are two types of innate behaviors, reflex and instinct(反射和本能).

Instinct and reflex are not the same thing. Instinct is a natural, innate behavior that is present from birth, while reflex is an automatic response to a stimulus. Instincts are more complex and involve a cognitive component, while reflexes are simple and do not involve cognition.

Refex: simple and quick reflex, no need to be processed by brain. 快速简单不经过意识（眨眼，逃跑，膝跳反应）
Instinct: more complex than reflex, and involve a cognitive component. 经过意识的长时间复杂反应（蜘蛛织网，鸟类迁徙）

Reflex is a simple innate behavior that is an automatic response and does not involve a message to the brain. Like blink and yawn are never need to be taught. Another example is if you touch a hot pot, your reflex will quickly pull your hand away.

Instincts are more comple than innate behaviors. Instinct is a complex pattern of innate behavior that can take weeks to complete. For example, a spider is born with the ability to spin a web. However, this a instinct because it is more complex.

Imprinting and Conditioning 印象和条件

Imprinting: learned behavior, when an animal forms a social attachment to another organism during a specific period following birth or hatching.

Imprinting is a specialized form of learning that occurs during a brief period in young animals—e.g., ducks imprinting on their mother. In classical conditioning, a new stimulus is associated with a pre-existing response through repeated pairing of new and previously known stimuli.

Filial imprinting

an animal assume the first moving object that it saw is its mother.

Conditioning

It occurs when the response to a stimulus becomes related to(associated with) another stimulus. Conditioning is the ability of one animal to associate one stimulus to another. Think about training a dog, when a dog performs a command favorably, it will be rewared accordingly, the dog is then conditional to learn that when he follows his owner’s command, he gets treat.

All animals are born with the desire to protect their young and property. And if a predator other animal threatens their possessions or makes them feel as if they will be attacked, they respond with aggression. Aggression is a forceful behavior, such as fighting, used by an animal to control or dominate another animal in order to protect their young, defend territory or get food. Agressive behavior is most prominant between a predator and its prey.

Courtship behavior**(求偶行为)

The ability to locate and mate with the same species, so that the species can continue to flourish. 求偶行为：寻找同一物种并交配的能力，使该物种能够继续繁衍生息。To recgnize each other and prepare to mate(匹配，交配结婚). Animals use a variety sounds or movements to signal potential mates. Frogs and whales are known to make mating calls. Male peacocks spread their colorful plumage while some giraffes perform a ritual dance.

Any behavoir that involves contact between members of the same species, including courtship behavior is known as social behavior. Social behavior is interactions among members of the same species, including courtship and mating, getting food, caring for young and protecting each other.

Society

Society is a group of animals of the same species live and work together in an organized way, with each member do a specific job. e.g., chicken’s pecking order, and bees society.

Pheromone(信息素)

Pheromone is powerful chemical produced by an animal to influence the behavior of another animal of the same species. Pheromones are essentially scent signals(信息素本质上是气味信号). They are chemicals that animals release through bodily fluids, such as saliva and perspiration(唾液和汗液) for a specific purpose. Often to signal other members of their species that they are ready to mate, there’s food nearby, marking trails, or that there’s trouble ahead.

Cyclic Behavior, Hibernation & Migration

Cyclic behavior is the behavior that occurs in repeated patterns. Hibernation is a cyclic hehavioral adaption for winter survival in which an animal’s activity is greatly reduced. Its body temperature drops and body processes slow down. Other animals to migrate. Migration is seasonal movement of animals to find food or to reproduce in better conditions.

Learned Behaviours in Animals

foraging techniques 觅食技术

clicks and whistles
migratory routes
vocalization and sounds
lions: stalking, ambushing and cooperative hunting strategies

动物的自我保护（self-defense）

distraction display 迷惑展示: behaviours exhibited by birds to divert and evade predators, the behaviour is very prominent in many ground nesting birds. Displays are particularly seen when birds are defending their nest.
imitation 拟态模仿(看起来是树叶，其实是一只虫子)，一个动物模仿另一个动物
texture 质地，纹理
cloaking 隐身，斗篷
camouflage 伪装
squid 鱿鱼
octopus 🐙章鱼变色 chrome- 颜色的 chromosome 染色体
chromatophores 色素细胞
coral 珊瑚(小动物)
hide 兽皮，没什么毛的皮，躲藏
fur 皮毛
hatch 孵化（蛋）
sepia 乌贼墨
mutant 突变体
parasites 寄生虫
pheromones: a special chemical signal. 信息素

仿生学

Migration 迁徙
Aerodynamic 空气动力学（大雁飞行）
Echo-location 回声定位（蝙蝠和鲸鱼）
Swarm intelligence 集群智能
Hook and loop fasteners 魔术贴，带钩和圈（苍耳的原理）

动物听觉器官

蝙蝠 echolocation
青蛙 eardrum 耳鼓
鸟 auditory canal 小洞
蝗虫 film（薄膜），腹部薄膜，感知震动
film 薄膜，保鲜膜，电影胶片

共生 Symbiosis

Symbiosis 共生(living together, can be benefit from each other or not)
mutualism 互利共生（尼罗河的鸟和鳄鱼，蚂蚁和毛毛虫）
obligatory mutualism 强制互利共生。a type of mutualism where the relationship is necessary for both organisms to survive.
commensalism 偏利共生（有一方收益更大），鲨鱼下面跟着小鱼
parasitism 寄生
Klepto-parasitism 偷窃寄生
Klepto- 偷窃
escort: 护送 accompany (someone or something) somewhere as an escort.

Botany 植物学

词汇

cell: smallest working part of a living organism.
chromosome: strand of DNA and associated proteins in the nucleus of cells that carries the organism’s genetic information.
DNA: (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule in every living organism that contains specific genetic information on that organism.
heredity: the passing on of characteristics from ancestors to descendants.
protozoa: one-celled organisms in the kingdom protista, such as amoebas. (singular: protozoan)
stem cell: early cell that can develop into any type of cell or tissue in the body; the undifferentiated cells that have yet to develop into more specialized cells.
Flora 植物群
Fauna 动物群
Botany 植物学
cytogenetics 细胞遗传学 which aimed to link the study of cells to the study of genetics.
James Watson and Francis Crick’s studies on the structure of DNA.
Root 根
stem 茎，干（干细胞的）
stalk 茎（玉米杆和甘蔗）
branch 树枝(主要分支)
trunk 树干
Twig 末梢
Bark 树皮，狗叫，独木舟
embark 上船
Seed 种子
Bud 花骨朵,花蕾; a compact growth on a plant that develops into a leaf, flower, or shoot
budding 萌芽，含苞待放
Pollen 花粉
Pollinate 授粉
budding historians 成长的历史学家
nectar 花蜜
Fern 蕨类
photosynthesis 光合作用
aquatic plant 水生植物
wither 枯萎
carrion carcasses of dead animals
shrub 灌木
bush 灌木
Herb 香草
blossom 开化
annual/perennial 一年/多年生植物
mangrove 红树林
Microbiome 微生物群
asthma 哮喘；喘息；哮喘病
inhabitant 居民
microbes 微生物🦠
autotrophs（自养）: organism that can produce its own food and nutrients from chemicals in the atmosphere, usually through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Autotrophs are known as producers because they are able to make their own food from raw materials and energy. Examples include plants, algae, and some types of bacteria.
Heterotrophs(异养) : organism that cannot make its own nutrients and must rely on other organisms for food. Heterotrophs are known as consumers because they consume producers or other consumers. Dogs, birds, fish, and humans are all examples of heterotrophs.

植物适应环境的能力

drought 干旱
root 根
Cacti
Salinity 盐度
Germinate 发芽
Bud 花蕾
photosynthesis 光合作用
Anthocyanin 花青素（叶子秋天变黄，叶绿素被回收）
枫叶🍁，为什么变红？

Microbiology 微生物学

protozoa 原生动物
unicellular organism 单细胞生物
multicellular organism 多细胞生物
prokaryotic cell 原核细胞
Nucleoid 拟核
Eukaryotic cell 真核细胞
cell nucleus 细胞核
nucleus 原子核

Mitochondrion 线粒体

植物细胞

Chloroplast 叶绿体
Chlorophyll 叶绿素
Anthocyanin 花青素
Cytoderm 细胞壁
Cell wall 细胞壁（动物细胞没有细胞壁）

genetics

Gene 基因（有遗传信息的部分DNA，DNA片段）chemical instructions, reproduce
DNA 脱氧核糖核酸（双链），包含gene
Chromosome 🧬染色体（可以被染色）包含DNA
traits 特征(eye color, height, nose shape)
environment and gene
Sex: sex introduces variation, genes from two cells
Mutation: increase differences, until cells become so different, they seperate species
mutating and diversifying, eyes developed, light sensitive
nerve cells, fish like creature
nucleus 细胞核
haploid 单一的; 单倍体
diploid 双倍体
mitosis 有丝分裂
miosis (细胞的)减数分裂，成熟分裂
tetrad 四分体

DNA: the instructions for building all living things.(A,C,G,T)

Proteins carry out most of the body functions.

细胞分裂

Mitosis 有丝分裂
Amitosis 无丝分裂
Bacteria & germ 细菌
virus 细菌
Amino acid 氨基酸
fungus 真菌
filaments 菌丝
Chitin 甲壳素（螃蟹壳）
Secrete 分泌
Enzyme 媒
antibiotics 抗生素
penicillin 盘尼西林
Aspirin 阿司匹林
tissue 组织，纸巾
organ 器官
secrete 分泌
immune 免疫者
calorie 卡路里
carbohydrate 碳水化合物
Glucose is a sugar produced by plants through photosynthesis. Both plants and animals utilize glucose for energy through cellular respiration.
luciferin 荧光素（萤火虫有）
alkali metals（钠，钾一列，除去H）

Words

natural 自然的，本能的
nature and nurture 先天与后天
foraging for food. 觅食
pheromone. What Are Pheromones? Everything You Need To Know
heredity 遗传
DNA(DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA.)
taxonomy 分类
endophyte 内生菌
bacteria 细菌
fungi 真菌
flagellum 鞭毛
predator and prey 猎手（捕食性动物）和猎物
breed 繁殖交配
feed on… 以…为食
habitat 栖息地
rear 养育
at close quarters 近距离
A rich tropical jungle
cliff 悬崖
tigar
tigaress 母老虎
natural habitat
migrate 迁徙
flora 植物群
nectar 花蜜
Lichens 地衣
photosynthesis 光合作用（叶绿素将水和二氧化碳转化成氧气和葡萄糖）
organic molecules
energy-efficient
pollinate 授粉
spreading pollen 传播花粉
hydrochloric acid 盐酸（胃酸）
ecological tourism
banding study
creature 生物
nesting sites
migration routes
decline in the population
hummingbird beats its wings
all of these activities pose a real threat to the hummingbird population
fur 软毛，皮毛，皮草
forage v. 觅食，搜寻 n. 饲料；草料
mammoth n. 猛犸象
methane n. 甲烷，牛打嗝，温室气体
nitrogen n. 氮气
prey 猎物
predator 捕食者
reptile 爬行动物
soak up/soak 吸收液体，浸透
slide 滑动
territory 领地；（经验）范围
acid 酸的
aquatic 水生的，水的
aquifer 含水层
bacteria 细菌
bush 灌木灌木丛
camouflage 伪装（变色龙，变色青蛙，蜥蜴，雨，蜻蜓）
charcoal 木炭
creature 生物，动物
crop 庄稼
dehydrate 脱水
germinate 发芽
herd 兽群
herbivore 食草动物
botany 植物学
helium 氦
meadow 草地，牧场
microbe 微生物
mineral n. 矿物质，矿产
moisture 湿气，潮气
molecule 分子
monsoon n. 季风，雨季
thrive 繁荣，蓬勃发展
barren 贫瘠的（土地）
basal 底部的
chromosome 染色体
temperate forests 温带森林
fungus 真菌
varnish 油漆
binomial nomenclature 用名字进行分类
bacteria
membrane 膜
Animal Cell 动物细胞
Plant Cell 植物细胞
vacuole 液泡
cell sap 细胞液
sack 背包，打下来了
somatic cell 体细胞
lactose 乳糖(a kind of sugar)
agar jelly 海藻凝胶
diffusion 扩散
osmosis 渗透
Angiosperms 被子植物（Flowering plant）有种子有花
arboreal 树栖运动
moss 苔藓类
fern 蕨类植物
algae 水藻
prokaryote 原核生物
mold 霉菌
mushroom 蘑菇
yeast 酵母菌
inquisitive 好奇的
organisms(有机体)

Cell Structure

Proteins -> Living Cells -> Tissue -> Organs

cytoplasm 细胞质
Nucleolus 细胞核
chromosomes 染色体
mitochondria 线粒体
chloroplast 叶绿体(light+ CO2 + H2O -> O2 + glucose)
chlorophyll 叶绿素
ribosomes 核糖体（核糖体（Ribosomes）是细胞内参与蛋白质生成的细小结构。核糖核酸（ribonucleic acid，简称RNA）是类似脱氧核糖核酸的化学物质，执行DNA的指令，合成…）
cell membrane 细胞膜
intracellular 细胞内的

植物细胞和动物细胞区别，植物细胞有细胞壁(cell wall)。动物细胞没有细胞壁。

Two type of cells

Prokaryotes(without membrane bound organelles, 单细胞，Bacteria细菌, archaea古生菌)
Eukaryotes(with membrane bound organelles, fungi菌类, protists原生生物, animals, plants)

autotroph(自养) and heterotroph（异养）

自养：photosynthesis, plants, make food themselves
异养：animals, fungi, get food from outside

enzyme 酶（剪刀）

Enzymes are proteins that help speed up metabolism（代谢）, or the chemical reactions in our bodies. They build some substances and break others down. All living things have enzymes. Our bodies naturally produce enzymes.

genes -> proteins(enzymes) -> catalyse reactions

工作环境：相对中和，36度温度

denature 变质，中毒

staple 主食（长链糖）
amylase 淀粉酶
starch 淀粉
iodine 碘
glucose 葡萄糖(C₆H₁₂O₆, 光合作用生成)
ATP 三个磷酸根
ADP 两个磷酸根
AMP 一个磷酸根

光合作用 photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to create oxygen and energy in the form of sugar(glucose,葡萄糖).

Cyclic phosphorylation generates ATP and is driven by light energy. 循环磷酸化产生 ATP，并由光能驱动。

光合作用也称光能合成（英语：photosynthesis），是许多食物网基层的等生产者（自养生物）利用光能将水、二氧化碳或硫化氢等无机物转变成可以储存化学能的有机物（比如碳水化合物）的生物过程[1]。根据化学反应所产生的副产品，光合作用可分为产氧光合作用（oxygenic photosynthesis）和不产氧光合作用（anoxygenic photosynthesis）两类，分别使用不同的感光色素（photopigment），而且会因为不同环境改变反应速率。通俗意义上的“光合作用”主要指产氧光合作用。

12H2O + 6CO2 —hν→ （与叶绿素产生化学作用）C6H12O6 （葡萄糖） + 6O2 + 6H2O

ATP(Energy Currency，可使用的能量)

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide that provides energy to drive and support many processes in living cells, such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, condensate dissolution, and chemical synthesis. Found in all known forms of life, it is often referred to as the “molecular unit of currency” of intracellular energy transfer.

mitochondria 线粒体将glucose转化为ATP。

Cellular Reproduction: Mitosis and Meiosis(cell division,细胞繁殖：有丝分裂和减数分裂)

https://askabiologist.asu.edu/cell-division

If a cell can not stop dividing when it is supposed to stop, this can lead to a disease called cancer.

Depending on the type of cell, there are two ways cells divide—mitosis and meiosis. Each of these methods of cell division has special characteristics. One of the key differences in mitosis is a single cell divides into two cells that are replicas of each other and have the same number of chromosomes. This type of cell division is good for basic growth, repair, and maintenance. In meiosis a cell divides into four cells that have half the number of chromosomes. Reducing the number of chromosomes by half is important for sexual reproduction and provides for genetic diversity.

Mitosis Cell Division(非生殖细胞, Growth and repair)

Mitosis is a single cell divides into two cells that are replicas of each other and have the same number of chromosomes.

Mitosis is how somatic—or non-reproductive cells—divide. Somatic cells make up most of your body’s tissues and organs, including skin, muscles, lungs, gut, and hair cells. Reproductive cells (like eggs) are not somatic cells.

Cancer = uncontroled Mitosis

Meiosis Cell Division(sex cells，生殖细胞)

sperm cells 精子
egg cells 卵子

A cell divides into four cells that have half the number of chromosomes.

Meiosis is the other main way cells divide. Meiosis is cell division that creates sex cells, like female egg cells or male sperm cells. What is important to remember about meiosis? In meiosis, each new cell contains a unique set of genetic information. After meiosis, the sperm and egg cells can join to create a new organism.

Foundations of Genetics(Heredity)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8m6hHRlKwxY

Genetics is the study of heredity.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA 脱氧核糖核酸又称去氧核糖核酸，是一种生物大分子，可组成遗传指令，引导生物发育与生命机能运作。主要功能是信息储存，可比喻为“蓝图”或“配方”。其中包含的指令，是建构细胞内其他的化合物，如蛋白质与核糖核酸所需。带有蛋白质编码的DNA片段称为基因。其他的DNA序列，有些直接以本身构造发挥作用，有些则参与调控遗传信息的表现。

Nucleotides: sugar and phosphate molecules 核苷酸：糖和磷酸分子 Bases: Thymine, adenine, guanine, and Cytosine(ACTG) 胸腺嘧啶、腺嘌呤、鸟嘌呤和胞嘧啶

Human Genome Project. Which comes risks and ethical questions.

One person has about 20000 genes in his DNA. They encode the molecules that make up your DNA.

DNA: substance of which genes and chromosomes are made. A apiralling chain-like molecule made of nucleotides. DNA nucleotides come in 4 different types: A, C, T and G.
Genes: segments of DNA located along the chromosomes. A long stretch of DNA that codes for something, usually a protein or a group of proteins.
Chromosomes: store and transmit genetic information(long string of DNA). An entire chain of DNA along with a group stabilizing proteins.
Alleles(alternative forms) 等位基因 represent different variations a gene.(a version of a gene, different people have different version of gene, hence different features or traits)
dominant: always expressed
recessive: nondominate
Homezygous: an organism that inherits identical alleles for a trait from each parent(FF, ff)
Heterozygous: different alleles for atrait are inherited(Ff,fF)
phenotype 表型(apperance)
law of segregation: the result of Mendel’s experiments on dominant and recessive inheritance let to Mendel’s first law.
Mutation: any change in the nucleotide sequence of a chain of DNA/RNA.
ribosomes: makes protein

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, totaling 46 chromosomes in their cells. They get 23 chromosomes from their mother and 23 from their father. Two sets of chromosomes, two of every gene.

For every gene a parent has, one of their two versions of it is randomly passed on to their child.

F: normal allele(dominat)
f: cystic fibrosis allele(recessive)

Parents: Ff, Ff
Children: FF, Ff, fF, ff

Protein Synthesis

Transription: Scribe!, Fetch some RNA to dictate a message. Transcribe ath DNA into a message, mRNA.

Translation: mRNA + Ribosome(makes protein)

Amino Acid: (氨基酸) used to build protein

Discovering the Chemical Nature of the Gene

What is a GENE ? A Molecular Approach

The Origin and Diversity of Life

Evolution: change in population that is inherited over generations.

Factors that drive microevolution:

migration
natural selection
mutation(advantages gene change)
genetic drift(random)

DNA vs RNA

DNA is double-stranded, forming a double helix, while RNA is usually single-stranded. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, whereas RNA contains ribose. Furthermore, DNA uses the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine, while RNA uses adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine.

食物的消化过程

胃酸消化杀菌，胰腺分泌碱性，进入肠道

虫子

woodlice 潮虫
maggot 蛆
germinate 发芽

Topics

Wind pollination 风媒传粉
freeze of frog 青蛙冬眠
glucose: 葡萄糖
thaw 解冻，融化
rehydrate 补水
fungi
forest ecosystems
parasite 寄生虫
symbiotic relationship 共生关系
swamps, marshes 沼泽，沼泽
ferns 蕨类植物
moths 飞蛾
birds 鸟类
birds homing 鸟类迁徙，导航，回巢的能力, pigeons 鸽子
鸟类的视力

How Are Living Things Classified?(five Kingdoms of Organisms)

The five Kingdoms of Organisms:

Monera(Prokaryotes, 原核生物) 单细胞生物, single-celled organisms有机体. lack a nucleus in their cells. Bacteria and certain types of algae.(最原始)
Protista 原生生物（比细菌要复杂，藻类，草履虫，阿米巴虫）, A protist or protoctist is any eukaryotic(真核的) organism that is not an animal, land plant, or fungus. 可以或不可以光合作用，有单细胞，也有多细胞（比较原始，Importance: Ancestors of multicellular life）
Fungi 菌类（从外交获取能量，不制造能量）, multi-celled, molds, yeasts, mushrooms. they feed on decaying tissues of other organisms.（非植物，非动物，介于之间，基因像动物，外表像植物）
Plantae 植物界, multicellular organisms, include ferns, mosses, and flowering and non-flowering plants. chlorophyll 叶绿素, can not move（不动，光合作用）
Animalia 动物界, can move. insects, worms, fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals. eat other organisms.（动，吸取外界碳水）

Kingdom Monera 细菌🦠（prokaryotes，原核生物, single-cell organism, no nucleus, no membrane-bound）

Kingdom monera includes bacteria which most abundant micro-organism. Bacteria live in extreme habitats like hot springs, deserts, snow and deep oceans.

Prokaryotes are bacteria which are unicellular and have no distinct nucleus. They have a naked DNA. Structure is simple but behaviour is complex. 原核生物是单细胞细菌，没有明显的细胞核。他们有裸露的DNA。结构很简单，但行为很复杂。

They show the most extensive and metabolic diversity. Some of the bacteria are autotrophic i.e. they prepare their own food material from inorganic substances. 它们表现出最广泛的代谢多样性。一些细菌是自养的，即它们从无机物质中制备自己的食物材料。

Vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophic i.e. they do not synthesize their own food but depend on other organisms or on dead organic matter for food.

They do have a cell wall, genetic material, cytoplasm, ribosomes. 细胞壁、遗传物质、细胞质、核糖体

This kingdom is divided into two groups: archaea bacteria(古细菌) and bacteria. Archaea bacteria is found in extreme environmets.

Bacteria is also found almost everywhere. Bacteria is very important to life on earth, althrough some cause disease, most are very helpful to us. They break down food in our stomach help the nitrogen cycle and even help make some of our food like sauerkraut. We cannot survive without bacteria.

sphere shape 球形
rod shape 棒状
spiral shape 螺旋形状

Most members of the Monera kingdom reproduce asexually in a process called binary fission, but some reproduce sexually in a process called conjugation(共轭)

CONJUGATION, TRANSFORMATION, TRANSDUCTION (HORIZONTAL GENE TRANSFER)

Protists 原生生物（真核生物，次原始，多细胞生物的祖先，包括藻类，草履虫，有细毛会游动）

Protists give rise to animals, plants, fungus.

antimicrobial resistance.

produce up to 50% of the world’s oxygen.

Choanoflagellates 领鞭毛虫

mostly aquatic life
unually unicellular
- eukaryotic
Reproduction
- some asexual, some sexual, some both
Feeding
- most heterotrophic, some autotrophic, parasitic
Kingdom for life that doesn’t fit in animals, plant or fungi kingdom.

3 main categories:

Animal-like
Plant-like（algae）
Fungi-like

Animal-like Protista

AKA: Protozoans
Heterotrophic: pathogens, parasties, predators
classified by how they move:

Pseudopods: move w/

Protists and Fungi 原生生物和真菌

Protists(many can move, diverse group, like animal cells or plant cells):

nucleus
Membrane - Bound Organelles

Algae 藻类（也是原生生物，比细菌复杂）

光合作用，有水的地方。

Fungi(decomposer of ecosystem, mushrooms蘑菇, yeast发面, antibiotics抗生素, penicilin, mold霉菌)

The life of the forest. Fungi

Fungi get the energy they need by breaking down the remains of plants and animals. Organisms that get their energy this way called decomposers. Decomposers paly an important role in an ecosystem by helping to recycle dead organisms into nutrients in the soil.

Many fungi can do both sexual and asexual reproduction. Both of these forms of reproduction often involve the use of spores. Spores are spread by wind, by animals or another method. Fungi can also be parasites(寄生虫) of many organisms, like the nematode(线虫). Fungi can also attack plants and therefore cause destruction to crops(农作物).

But fungi do a lot of good, they excellent decomposers which is very important for ecosystems. Many types of fungi make up food sources for other organisms(有机体). Many fungi are involved in some of the foods humans eat: like producting some types of cheese.

They can’t photosynthesize and lack the distinguishing features of plants such as stems, leaves, flowers or fruits. Mushrooms now belong to their own group called fungi. Some common fungi are puff balls, bracket fungi, molds, mildews and truffles(泡芙球、支架真菌、霉菌、霉菌和松露).

It is true that fungi can problematic.

In autumn, we can pick mushrooms in the forest. Fungi are neither plant nor animal. Funngi also have the ability to control organisms. The genetic code of mushroom has more in common with ours than a potatoes.

It includes chanterelles and shiitakes, but also molds and yeasts. 它包括鸡油菌和香菇，还包括霉菌和酵母。

Mushrooms are the part of the fungus that spreads spores(孢子) in order to reproduce.

symbiotic relationship 共生关系

The life of the forest. Fungi

Fungi decomposes dead organic matter as a carbon source.

There are maybe 5 million species of fungi on our planet. Fall, variety.

Mushrooms are the most famous fungi.

Spores is the primary way for fungi to spread.

saprotrophic fungi 腐蚀性的真菌, related to dead wood.

arboreal fungi 树栖真菌

They paly a key role in the circulation of elements and energy in nature.

The fungi get carbohydrates from the trees and in return, they give the tree nitrogen and phosphorus. 真菌从树木中获取碳水化合物，作为回报，它们为树木提供氮和磷。

decomposition organic things.

pathogens 病原体
mold 模具，霉菌
fungal hyphae 真菌菌丝
soil pathogens 土壤病原体
majestic 雄伟
larch boletes 落叶松牛肝菌
bay boletes 湾牛肝菌
boletus
birch boletes
boletes 牛肝菌
milkcap 乳帽
ectomycorrhizal 外生菌根
saprophyte fungi 腐生真菌
indicator organisms: useful for observing the impatct of changes in forest ecosystem due to human activity.
perennial tree 多年生乔木
porcinos 牛肝菌
chanterelles 鸡油菌
termite eggs 白蚁卵
gills or spores 鳃或孢子
hydnoids 水螅
hallucinogenic 致幻剂
chitin in the cell walls of a filamentous fungus
filamentous 丝的
chitin 壳质；几丁质；角素；甲壳素(可以结合重金属，消除水体中的重金属)
adsorption吸附 and absorption吸收； They both can help keep pollutants out of groundwater

And a filamentous fungus can adsorb toxic heavy metals, bind them to the surface of its enormous network of filaments, and thereby detoxify a large soil ecosystem. 丝状真菌可以吸附有毒金属，把他们粘在巨大的菌丝网的表面，由此为大的土壤生态系统解毒。

One of the most dangerous mushroom killers is undoubtely the amanita phalloides(鬼笔鹅膏), commonly knows as the death cap.

Fungi produce life-saving medicines such as penicillin. Yeast(酵母) is fungus, without which we’d have no bread wine beer or cheese. Even corn is made from fungus. Basically without fungi there would be no middle class dinner parties. Mycelium can be used to make packaging and clothing. Fungi have been used to clean up oil spills and an itaconic acid derived from a fungus is even used to make lego. If the activity of soil fungi were to increase they could potentially solve global warmming on their own.

霉菌（过期的食物上面），酵母。没有叶绿素，无法进行光合作用，需要从其他地方获取养分。

The Seven Levels of Classification(Linnaean System gave Latin names)

kingdom 界(5 kingdoms: Monera,Protista,Fungi,Plantae,Animalias)
phylum 门
class 钢
order 目
family 科
genus 叔
species 种

When scientists want to specify an organism, they typically use the genus and the species. The first part of the name tells its genus. The second part of the name tells its species. For example, the scientific name for human beings is Homo sapiens. Homo is the genus, and sapiens is the species.

Swarm intelligence 群体智能

What are two principles of swarm intelligence based on the ant example?

Individuals act on information in their local environment
Individuals instinctively follow a set of rules

Ant/birds

Each individual, each individual ant operates by instinctively following a simple set of rules when foraging for food.

当觅食的时候，每个个体，每个个体蚂蚁本能地遵循一套简单的规则。

Rule number one: deposit a chemical marker called a pheromone.

第一条规则：释放一种被称为费洛蒙的化学标记。（这里有个问题，费洛蒙可以翻译成“信息素”但是全文都翻译的“费洛蒙”，是否翻译需要全文替换？）

And rule two: follow the strongest pheromone path.

规则二：跟随最强的费洛蒙路径。

Antibiotic

Antibiotics can be bacteriostatic(to stop) or bactericidal(to kill).

Penicillins are bactericidal.

Antibiotics do not work on viruses, because viruses have a different structure to bacteria.

Immune System(Lines of defense)

First Line of Defense(non-specific): skin, mocous membrances
Second Line of Defense(non-specific): macrophages(phagocytic white blood cells), inflammatory response
Third Line of Defense(specific): B and T cells(lymphocytes - specific type of white blood cells)

T-Cell，naive T-cells, Thymus

动物实验中国，长期（几十年）减少30%卡路里摄取(calorie-restricted diet)：

Younger and healther
More naive T-Cell, able to attack new bacteries

And T-cells are a part of body’s immune system.

而淋巴细胞是身体免疫系统的一部分。

They can recognize and eliminate cells from outside the body that might cause disease.

它们可以辨识并消灭那些来自体外，可能会引起疾病的细胞。

At that point we call it a memory T-cell because it’s learned to recognize a protein marker that identifies this particular kind of bacterium.

到那时，我们就称它为记忆淋巴细胞，因为它已经学会辨识一种可以认出这种特定细菌的蛋白质标记了。

But before it’s learned to recognize any particular protein from outside the body, we call it naive. Okay?

但在它学会辨认体外的任一特定蛋白质之前，我们称它为幼稚。明白了吗？

It relates to caloric restriction.

有关于卡路里限制的研究。

Professor: Apparently not. Similar results have come from experiments on other animals from roundworms to most recently Rhesus monkeys.

教授：显然不是。关于其他动物的实验，不管是针对蛔虫还是最近对恒河猴的实验，都得到了相似的结果。

Professor: Apparently not. Similar results have come from experiments on other animals from roundworms to most recently Rhesus monkeys.

教授：显然不是。关于其他动物的实验，不管是针对蛔虫还是最近对恒河猴的实验，都得到了相似的结果。

Articles

Apply: energy of chemical reactions

Catabolic reactions occur in living organisms and are responsible for breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones. These reactions provide cells with the energy they need to carry out basic functions like breathing, moving, or competing in a race!

Biology class: wood frog’s freezing during winter(❌2/6)

有很多词汇不熟悉
老师语速快
记笔记导致漏信息

Words:

antifreeze 防冻剂
urine 尿
glucose
concoction 混合物
frostbite 冻疮
metabolic activity 代谢活动
grueling 严罚

So before we close today, I thought I’d mention a biological event that’s a part of the transition from winter to spring, something you can go outside and watch if you have some patience.

The freezer that generated from its liver prevents cells themselfves from freezing, only the water between cells froze.

It turns out that the frog’s liver pumped a syrupy, natural antifreeze into his cells in the fall. It kept his organs from freezing. Only the water between cells froze.

North American wood frog.

As the sugar mixes with urine in the blood, it creates homemade antifreeze.

Convergent evolution 趋同进化

单性繁殖和交配繁殖

单性繁殖的好处是不需要配偶，坏处是所有后代的基因和特征都与其母亲相同。交配繁殖需要两性，需要寻找配偶，后代的基因是父母的组合，每一个后代都有细微不同，导致整个家族的适应能力增强，当外界环境恶化是，更适应环境的个体，更有可能存活下来，如果所有后代的基因都相同，则整个家族可能遭遇灭顶之灾。

Coral Reefs(colorful hard Animals that live in tropical oceans) 珊瑚礁

珊瑚提供了很多动物的住所，它们有不同的颜色是因为上面附着了绿藻等职务。珊瑚是一种小动物，很坚硬。

coral 珊瑚

Corals are colorful hard animals that live in tropical oceans, which are major threatens to wooden boats.

Coral reefs, their bringht, vivid colors can be seen in tropical ocean waters around the globe.

Beyond their brilliant appearance(辉煌的外表), lies a hidden significance.

Corals are animals, through they may look like colorful plants, coral are, in fact, made up of tiny aniamls called polyps.

These invertebrates can range from the size of a pinhead to a bit larger than a basketball. Each polyp consists of a soft, saclike(囊状的) body, topped by a mouth covered in stinging tentacles(带刺触须). To protect their soft bodies and add support, the polyps secrete limestone skeletons, or calicles.

Corals are mega builders. Polyp calicles connect to one another, creating a colony that acts as a single organism.

As colonies grow over hundreds and thousands of years, they join with other colonies and become reefs that can grow to hundreds of miles long. The largest coral reef is Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, which began growing about 20, 000 years ago.

Coral reefs are some of the most diverse ecosystem on Earth. Though they cover less than 1% of the ocean floor, coral reefs are home to 25% of all marine creatures.

It’s been estimated that up to two million species inhabit coral reefs, rivaling the biodiversity of the rain forest.

rivaling 与……竞争，与……相匹敌：与某人或某事物竞争，试图超越或达到相同的水平。

The reefs provide rich habitat that helps protect young fish as they grow.

Corals are translucent(透明的). Coral reefs get rainbow of colors from algae(水藻，海藻), or zooxanthellae(黄藻) that live in their tissue. Though corals use their tentacles(触手) to capture(抓取) some food, most of their food comes from the algae they house.

When coral become stressed by pollution or other factors, they evict their algae.

Coral bleaching results, due to the rise of ocean’s temperature, revealing corals’ white skeletons.

Coral provide a window to the past. As coral grow, their limestone skeletons form layers, similar to tree rings, that vary in composition and thickness based on ocean conditions at the time.

With coral reefs growing from thousands or even millions of years, scientists can study these layers to reveal what the Earth’s climate may have been like in ancient past.

Unfortunately, climate change is putting coral’s future in danger. Along with the millions of species that inhabit the reefs and half-billion people that rely on reef fish for food.

rely on … for …

Warming waters result in prolonged(长期的，持续很久的) coral bleaching(白化) that kill coral reefs or leave them vulnerable to other threats.

Without significant action on climate change, our oceans could lose many of their colorful reefs by the end of the century.

Geographic Isolation of Species (allopatric speciation)

地理隔绝导致的新物种。地理隔绝导致同物种的生殖隔离，基因逐渐变化，最终导致新的物种。新物种和原物种无法交配。

Geographic isolation creates opportunities for new species to develop, but it does not necessarily lead to new species because speciation occurs only when the gene pool undergoes enough changes to establish reproductive barriers between the isolated population and its parent population.

Isolation can result when a geographic barrier forms and splits a population or when a few organisms somehow get carried across an existing geographic barrier and form a new population.

Speciation is more likely when an isolated population is small because significant genetic changes are more likely to occur in a small population than in a large one.

The Galapagos Islands are well situated for speciation because they provide opportunities for population isolation while also making occasional dispersions between islands possible.

Explaining Dinosaur Extinction

Many explanations for dinosaur extinction have been proposed, but most of them are either called into question by known facts or are merely unsupported hypotheses.

Any satisfactory explanation of the mass extinction of dinosaurs must take into account the fact that the disappearance of the dinosaurs was part of a global mass extinction.

A huge bolide striking Earth would have created conditions in which most plants would have died, thus explaining the mass extinction of organisms—including dinosaurs—further up the food chain.

Amphibian Thermoregulation 两栖动物的体温控制

Physical adaptations offer amphibians a number of ways to protect against extreme or dangerous climate conditions.

Amphibians can increase their body temperature by exposing themselves to the sun (heliothermy) and by pressing against the ground (thigmothermy).

Avoidance behaviors, such as sheltering from the sun, as well as estivation and hibernation, help amphibians control their body temperature.

Physiological adaptations 生理适应

acclimatization (long-term exposure to particular conditions)

diurnal 日间活动的

hibernation 冬眠/estivation 夏眠

endotherms and ectotherms

endotherms: mammals, birds, control the body temperature through metabolism
ectotherms: reptiles, amphibians, insects, control the body temperature by outside(sun, shelter), metabolism is so much lower
shiver 颤抖
metabolism 新陈代谢
breath 呼吸
physiological response 生理反应
lizard/snake/frog
shade 阴凉

Direct Species Translocation

conspecifics 同种(物种，animals or plants belonging to the same species)
become extinct 变得灭绝
reintroduction: to establish a new population where a population of conspecifics has become extinct
reinforcement: adding individuals to and existing population
translocation: relocate a plant or an animal to another palce
efficacy 功效
sedentary species 定居种类
to introduce deleterious（有毒的） or maladaptive（不适应的） genes to a population
Doing A may has negative/positive impacts on B.
has a realistic chance of success
will be properly monitored and evaluated for the benefit of futurn efforts.
be vulnerable to local catastrophic events.
took place: happened
have resulted in 导致了…
appears to have been done
resident 常住户，住户
Unfortunately, the success stories are at least matched by accounts of failure. 不幸的是，成功的故事常常与失败的故事相匹配。遗憾的是，成功的故事至少也有失败的故事。
A have not beed done and should not be done as
mitigation practices 缓解措施
an experiment was carried out(执行，实施)
little evidence 证据

Seasonal Succession in Phytoplankton 浮游植物的季节演替

Parenting behavior

Nesting Behavior

brooding behavior 孵蛋

And dinosaur fossils have been found in postures that we now believe to indicate brooding behavior–that is, sitting on the eggs until they hatch.

并且，恐龙化石中所呈现出坐在蛋上孵蛋的姿态，我们现在认为这个就预示着一种孵蛋的行为。

Professor: Well, first they looked at clutch volume, that’s the number of eggs in the nest of crocodiles, birds and three types of dinosaurs, including Oviraptors that are thought to be closely related to the dinosaur ancestors of birds.

教授：首先，他们会着眼于窝卵数，也就是在鳄鱼、鸟类及三种恐龙巢穴中蛋的数量，其中也包括被认为和古代鸟类紧密相关的窃蛋龙。

You see, adult female birds during egg production produce a layer of spongy bone tissue inside certain long bones.

你是知道的，成年雌鸟在产蛋中会形成特定的长骨中为形成一层松质骨组织。

This spongy tissue serves as a source of calcium for eggshell formation.

这种松质组织充当了蛋壳形成的钙质的来源。

Amino acids 氨基酸（组成蛋白质的基础）

Extinction Episodes of the Past（65 Million years ago, the extinction of dinosaurs）

The best known of the five major extinction events, the one that saw the demise of the dinosaurs, is the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction.在五个主要的灭绝事件中，最著名的是白垩纪-第三纪的灭绝，这是恐龙灭绝的事件。收藏句子

However, no group or species can maintain its dominance indefinitely, and when, after over 200 million years, the age of dinosaurs came to a dramatic end about 65 million years ago, mammals began to flourish, evolving from relatively few types of small terrestrial animals into the myriad of diverse species, including bats and whales, that we know today.

Paleontologists label this point in Earth’s history as the end of the Cretaceous period and the beginning of the Tertiary period, often abbreviated as the K-T boundary.

Explanations for the K-T extinction were revolutionized in 1980 when a group of physical scientists led by Luis Alvarez proposed that 65 million years ago Earth was struck by a 10-kilometer-wide meteorite traveling at 90,000 kilometers per hour.

They believed that this impact generated a thick cloud of dust that enveloped Earth, shutting out much of the incoming solar radiation and reducing plant photosynthesis to very low levels. Short-term effects might have included huge tidal waves and extensive fires.

In other words, a series of events arising from a single cataclysmic event caused the massive extinctions.

Initially, the meteorite theory was based on a single line of evidence. At locations around the globe, geologists had found an unusually high concentration of iridium in the layer of sedimentary rocks that was formed about 65 million years ago. Iridium is an element that is usually uncommon near Earth’s surface, but it is abundant in some meteorites. Therefore, Alvarez and his colleagues concluded that it was likely that the iridium in sedimentary rocks deposited at the K-T boundary had originated in a giant meteorite or asteroid.

Most scientists came to accept the meteorite theory after evidence came to light that a circular formation, 180 kilometers in diameter and centered on the north coast of the Yucatán Peninsula, was created by a meteorite impact about 65 million years ago.

The Arrival of Plant Life in Hawaii

drenching(湿透) rains 大雨，湿透的雨
blazing sunshine 炙热的阳光
bare mountain flanks 光秃秃的山翼
flanks 两翼
flank 侧面，一边
toehold 克服困难的办法，排除障碍的方法；小立足点

社会学

alligator
sewer 下水道
strike fear into sb. 吓
transmission
mutation
meme: a piece of information passed on form person to person, like ideas, skills, stories, songs
longevity 长寿,exist long enough
fecundity 生育力, produce large numbers
fidelity 保真度, real, authenticate

Cancer 癌症（uncontrollable cell division）

What is cancer, and how does it start? Find out how genetics play a role, which types of cancer are the most prevalent, and what is being done to fight this deadly disease.

Cancer is basically a disease of uncontrolled cell division. Its development and progression are usually linked to a series of changes in the activity of cell cycle regulators.

Tumors(肿瘤):

Benign: remain in one area
Malignant: able to spread

Cells

The classical cell theory was proposed by Theodor Schwann in 1839. There are three parts to this theory. The first part states that all organisms are made of cells. The second part states that cells are the basic units of life.

Modern cell theory, which has three main additions: first, that DNA is passed between cells during cell division; second, that the cells of all organisms within a similar species are mostly the same, both structurally and chemically; and finally, that energy flow occurs within cells.

stromatolites 叠层石(Oldest Living Fossil)

叠层石可定义为“从某一点或有限的表面开始增生，并聚集石化，形成逐渐增大的沉淀物生成构造”。自然界中有许多不同型态的叠层石，包括圆锥状、层状、分枝状、圆顶状或圆柱状等。一般认为叠层石是由一些微生物，尤其是蓝绿菌所黏结堆砌而成，不过事实上古代的叠层石只有少数含有微生物化石

With a citizen scientist’s understanding, stromatolites are stony structures built by colonies of microscopic photosynthesising organisms called cyanobacteria.

水耕栽培 (Hydroponics)

水耕栽培，是一种不使用土壤种植植物的技术，只透过水携带供植物生长所需的营养成分，或是兼使用支撑植物根部的材质，例如：珍珠岩、砾石、木质纤维、砂粒、泡棉。由于不需用土壤，故又称无土栽培。

Hydroponics is the technique of growing plants using a water-based nutrient solution rather than soil, and can include an aggregate substrate, or growing media, such as vermiculite, coconut coir, or perlite. Hydroponic production systems are used by small farmers, hobbyists, and commercial enterprises.

manure 施肥/肥料

aquaculture 水产

Aquaponic(养耕共生) = Aquaculture(水产养鱼)+ Hydroponics(水耕栽培)