托福考试假定你初高中美国毕业。基础教育道换成英文体系。
Biology, the study of living things. Food production and disease control. Raise our standard of living.
A Quick Look at the Levels of Biological Organization.
地球三大生态系统
- 湿地（wetland, 水比较干净，海獭sea otter，海狸beaver）
- 森林
- 海洋
a Bio(一个生命)
- What they are?
- What they have?
- What they do?
- What they eat(How they get energy)
- How to reproduce?
- role in the ecosystem
Human
- homeostasis 体内平衡
Four types of tissues found in the human body
- connective 连接
- muscle 肌肉
- nervous 神经
- epithelial 上皮的
Zoology 动物学
动物门类
- carnivore
- herbivore
- omnivore
- marsupial 有袋动物
- amphibian 两栖动物
- Mammal 哺乳动物
- Vertebrate 脊椎动物
- cold/warm blooded animal 冷血动物
- metabolism 新陈代谢
- fossil 化石
- remains 遗骸（剩菜,leftovers）
- finch 雀类
- fungi(decomposers: recycle nutrients)
- caterpillar 毛虫，毛虫🐛
蜂类(bee)
- colony 种群
- hive 蜂巢
- queen
- drone 雄蜂
- mate 配偶/婚配
- mating ritual
- bee dance 蜂舞
关键种 Keystone species(生态系统中没它就不行)
- extirpated 灭绝，消灭的
- endangered 濒危的
- prey 猎物
- predator 掠食者
- sea otter
- beaver 海狸
- seaweed 海草
- shelter 庇护所
- sea urchins 海胆
- abalone 鲍鱼
Animal Behaviors
Animal Behaviors Video for Kids: Imprinting, Instinct, Conditioning, and Imitation Explained
Ethologists, people who study animal behavior. There two kinds of behavior, innate(born with) and learned.
Innate Behavior: Reflex and Instinct
There are two types of innate behaviors, reflex and instinct(反射和本能).
Instinct and reflex are not the same thing. Instinct is a natural, innate behavior that is present from birth, while reflex is an automatic response to a stimulus. Instincts are more complex and involve a cognitive component, while reflexes are simple and do not involve cognition.
- Refex: simple and quick reflex, no need to be processed by brain. 快速简单不经过意识（眨眼，逃跑，膝跳反应）
- Instinct: more complex than reflex, and involve a cognitive component. 经过意识的长时间复杂反应（蜘蛛织网，鸟类迁徙）
Reflex is a simple innate behavior that is an automatic response and does not involve a message to the brain. Like blink and yawn are never need to be taught. Another example is if you touch a hot pot, your reflex will quickly pull your hand away.
Instincts are more comple than innate behaviors. Instinct is a complex pattern of innate behavior that can take weeks to complete. For example, a spider is born with the ability to spin a web. However, this a instinct because it is more complex.
Imprinting and Conditioning 印象和条件
Imprinting: learned behavior, when an animal forms a social attachment to another organism during a specific period following birth or hatching.
Imprinting is a specialized form of learning that occurs during a brief period in young animals—e.g., ducks imprinting on their mother. In classical conditioning, a new stimulus is associated with a pre-existing response through repeated pairing of new and previously known stimuli.
Filial imprinting
an animal assume the first moving object that it saw is its mother.
Conditioning
It occurs when the response to a stimulus becomes related to(associated with) another stimulus. Conditioning is the ability of one animal to associate one stimulus to another. Think about training a dog, when a dog performs a command favorably, it will be rewared accordingly, the dog is then conditional to learn that when he follows his owner’s command, he gets treat.
Aggression, Courtship & Social Behavior 攻击性、求爱和社会行为
All animals are born with the desire to protect their young and property. And if a predator other animal threatens their possessions or makes them feel as if they will be attacked, they respond with aggression. Aggression is a forceful behavior, such as fighting, used by an animal to control or dominate another animal in order to protect their young, defend territory or get food. Agressive behavior is most prominant between a predator and its prey.
Courtship behavior**(求偶行为)
The ability to locate and mate with the same species, so that the species can continue to flourish. 求偶行为：寻找同一物种并交配的能力，使该物种能够继续繁衍生息。To recgnize each other and prepare to mate(匹配，交配结婚). Animals use a variety sounds or movements to signal potential mates. Frogs and whales are known to make mating calls. Male peacocks spread their colorful plumage while some giraffes perform a ritual dance.
Social behavior
Any behavoir that involves contact between members of the same species, including courtship behavior is known as social behavior. Social behavior is interactions among members of the same species, including courtship and mating, getting food, caring for young and protecting each other.
Society
Society is a group of animals of the same species live and work together in an organized way, with each member do a specific job. e.g., chicken’s pecking order, and bees society.
Pheromone(信息素)
Pheromone is powerful chemical produced by an animal to influence the behavior of another animal of the same species. Pheromones are essentially scent signals(信息素本质上是气味信号). They are chemicals that animals release through bodily fluids, such as saliva and perspiration(唾液和汗液) for a specific purpose. Often to signal other members of their species that they are ready to mate, there’s food nearby, marking trails, or that there’s trouble ahead.
Cyclic Behavior, Hibernation & Migration
Cyclic behavior is the behavior that occurs in repeated patterns. Hibernation is a cyclic hehavioral adaption for winter survival in which an animal’s activity is greatly reduced. Its body temperature drops and body processes slow down. Other animals to migrate. Migration is seasonal movement of animals to find food or to reproduce in better conditions.
Learned Behaviours in Animals
foraging techniques 觅食技术
- clicks and whistles
- migratory routes
- vocalization and sounds
- lions: stalking, ambushing and cooperative hunting strategies
动物的自我保护（self-defense）
- distraction display 迷惑展示: behaviours exhibited by birds to divert and evade predators, the behaviour is very prominent in many ground nesting birds. Displays are particularly seen when birds are defending their nest.
- imitation 拟态模仿(看起来是树叶，其实是一只虫子)，一个动物模仿另一个动物
- texture 质地，纹理
- cloaking 隐身，斗篷
- camouflage 伪装
- squid 鱿鱼
- octopus 🐙章鱼 变色 chrome- 颜色的 chromosome 染色体
- chromatophores 色素细胞
- coral 珊瑚(小动物)
- hide 兽皮，没什么毛的皮，躲藏
- fur 皮毛
- hatch 孵化（蛋）
- sepia 乌贼墨
- mutant 突变体
- parasites 寄生虫
- pheromones: a special chemical signal. 信息素
仿生学
- Migration 迁徙
- Aerodynamic 空气动力学（大雁飞行）
- Echo-location 回声定位（蝙蝠和鲸鱼）
- Swarm intelligence 集群智能
- Hook and loop fasteners 魔术贴，带钩和圈（苍耳的原理）
动物听觉器官
- 蝙蝠 echolocation
- 青蛙 eardrum 耳鼓
- 鸟 auditory canal 小洞
- 蝗虫 film（薄膜），腹部薄膜，感知震动
- film 薄膜，保鲜膜，电影胶片
共生 Symbiosis
- Symbiosis 共生(living together, can be benefit from each other or not)
- mutualism 互利共生（尼罗河的鸟和鳄鱼，蚂蚁和毛毛虫）
- obligatory mutualism 强制互利共生。a type of mutualism where the relationship is necessary for both organisms to survive.
- commensalism 偏利共生（有一方收益更大），鲨鱼下面跟着小鱼
- parasitism 寄生
- Klepto-parasitism 偷窃寄生
- Klepto- 偷窃
- escort: 护送 accompany (someone or something) somewhere as an escort.
Botany 植物学
词汇
- Flora 植物群
- Fauna 动物群
- Botany 植物学
- Root 根
- stem 茎，干（干细胞的）
- stalk 茎（玉米杆和甘蔗）
- branch 树枝(主要分支)
- trunk 树干
- Twig 末梢
- Bark 树皮，狗叫，独木舟
- embark 上船
- Seed 种子
- Bud 花骨朵,花蕾; a compact growth on a plant that develops into a leaf, flower, or shoot
- budding 萌芽，含苞待放
- Pollen 花粉
- Pollinate 授粉
- budding historians 成长的历史学家
- nectar 花蜜
- Fern 蕨类
- photosynthesis 光合作用
- aquatic plant 水生植物
- wither 枯萎
- shrub 灌木
- bush 灌木
- Herb 香草
- blossom 开化
- annual/perennial 一年/多年生植物
- mangrove 红树林
- Microbiome 微生物群
- asthma 哮喘；喘息；哮喘病
植物适应环境的能力
- drought 干旱
- root 根
- Cacti
- Salinity 盐度
- Germinate 发芽
- Bud 花蕾
- photosynthesis 光合作用
- Anthocyanin 花青素（叶子秋天变黄，叶绿素被回收）
- 枫叶🍁，为什么变红？
Microbiology 微生物学
- protozoa 原生动物
- unicellular organism 单细胞生物
- multicellular organism 多细胞生物
- prokaryotic cell 原核细胞
- Nucleoid 拟核
- Eukaryotic cell 真核细胞
- cell nucleus 细胞核
- nucleus 原子核
Mitochondrion 线粒体
植物细胞
- Chloroplast 叶绿体
- Chlorophyll 叶绿素
- Anthocyanin 花青素
- Cytoderm 细胞壁
- Cell wall 细胞壁（动物细胞没有细胞壁）
genetics
- Gene 基因（有遗传信息的部分DNA）chemical instructions, reproduce
- DNA 脱氧核糖核酸（双链）
- Chromosome 🧬染色体（可以被染色）
- traits 特征(eye color, height, nose shape)
- environment and gene
- Sex: sex introduces variation, genes from two cells
- Mutation: increase differences, until cells become so different, they seperate species
- mutating and diversifying, eyes developed, light sensitive
- nerve cells, fish like creature
DNA: the instructions for building all living things.(A,C,G,T)
Proteins carry out most of the body functions.
细胞分裂
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Mitosis 有丝分裂
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Amitosis 无丝分裂
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Bacteria & germ 细菌
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virus 细菌
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Amino acid 氨基酸
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fungus 真菌
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filaments 菌丝
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Chitin 甲壳素（螃蟹壳）
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Secrete 分泌
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Enzyme 媒
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antibiotics 抗生素
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penicillin 盘尼西林
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Aspirin 阿司匹林
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tissue 组织，纸巾
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organ 器官
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secrete 分泌
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immune 免疫者
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calorie 卡路里
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carbohydrate 碳水化合物
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Glucose is a sugar produced by plants through photosynthesis. Both plants and animals utilize glucose for energy through cellular respiration.
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luciferin 荧光素（萤火虫有）
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alkali metals（钠，钾一列，除去H）
Words
- natural 自然的，本能的
- nature and nurture 先天与后天
- foraging for food. 觅食
- pheromone. What Are Pheromones? Everything You Need To Know
- heredity 遗传
- DNA(DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA.)
- taxonomy 分类
- endophyte 内生菌
- bacteria 细菌
- fungi 真菌
- flagellum 鞭毛
- predator and prey 猎手（捕食性动物）和猎物
- breed 繁殖交配
- feed on… 以…为食
- habitat 栖息地
- rear 养育
- at close quarters 近距离
- A rich tropical jungle
- cliff 悬崖
- tigar
- tigaress 母老虎
- natural habitat
- migrate 迁徙
- flora 植物群
- nectar 花蜜
- Lichens 地衣
- photosynthesis 光合作用（叶绿素将水和二氧化碳转化成氧气和葡萄糖）
- organic molecules
- energy-efficient
- pollinate 授粉
- spreading pollen 传播花粉
- hydrochloric acid 盐酸（胃酸）
- ecological tourism
- banding study
- creature 生物
- nesting sites
- migration routes
- decline in the population
- hummingbird beats its wings
- all of these activities pose a real threat to the hummingbird population
- fur 软毛，皮毛，皮草
- forage v. 觅食，搜寻 n. 饲料；草料
- mammoth n. 猛犸象
- methane n. 甲烷，牛打嗝，温室气体
- nitrogen n. 氮气
- prey 猎物
- predator 捕食者
- reptile 爬行动物
- soak up/soak 吸收液体，浸透
- slide 滑动
- territory 领地；（经验）范围
- acid 酸的
- aquatic 水生的，水的
- aquifer 含水层
- bacteria 细菌
- bush 灌木 灌木丛
- camouflage 伪装（变色龙，变色青蛙，蜥蜴，雨，蜻蜓）
- charcoal 木炭
- creature 生物，动物
- crop 庄稼
- dehydrate 脱水
- germinate 发芽
- herd 兽群
- herbivore 食草动物
- botany 植物学
- helium 氦
- meadow 草地，牧场
- microbe 微生物
- mineral n. 矿物质，矿产
- moisture 湿气，潮气
- molecule 分子
- monsoon n. 季风，雨季
- thrive 繁荣，蓬勃发展
- barren 贫瘠的（土地）
- basal 底部的
- chromosome 染色体
- temperate forests 温带森林
- fungus 真菌
- varnish 油漆
- binomial nomenclature 用名字进行分类
- bacteria
- membrane 膜
- Animal Cell 动物细胞
- Plant Cell 植物细胞
- vacuole 液泡
- cell sap 细胞液
- sack 背包，打下来了
- somatic cell 体细胞
- lactose 乳糖(a kind of sugar)
- agar jelly 海藻凝胶
- diffusion 扩散
- osmosis 渗透
- Angiosperms 被子植物（Flowering plant）有种子有花
- arboreal 树栖运动
- moss 苔藓类
- fern 蕨类植物
- algae 水藻
- prokaryote 原核生物
- mold 霉菌
- mushroom 蘑菇
- yeast 酵母菌
- inquisitive 好奇的
- organisms(有机体)
Cell Structure
Proteins -> Living Cells -> Tissue -> Organs
- cytoplasm 细胞质
- Nucleolus 细胞核
- chromosomes 染色体
- mitochondria 线粒体
- chloroplast 叶绿体(light+ CO2 + H2O -> O2 + glucose)
- chlorophyll 叶绿素
- ribosomes 核糖体（核糖体（Ribosomes）是细胞内参与蛋白质生成的细小结构。核糖核酸（ribonucleic acid，简称RNA）是类似脱氧核糖核酸的化学物质，执行DNA的指令，合成…）
- cell membrane 细胞膜
- intracellular 细胞内的
植物细胞和动物细胞区别，植物细胞有细胞壁(cell wall)。动物细胞没有细胞壁。
Two type of cells
- Prokaryotes(without membrane bound organelles, 单细胞，Bacteria细菌, archaea古生菌)
- Eukaryotes(with membrane bound organelles, fungi菌类, protists原生生物, animals, plants)
autotroph(自养) and heterotroph（异养）
- 自养：photosynthesis, plants, make food themselves
- 异养：animals, fungi, get food from outside
enzyme 酶（剪刀）
Enzymes are proteins that help speed up metabolism（代谢）, or the chemical reactions in our bodies. They build some substances and break others down. All living things have enzymes. Our bodies naturally produce enzymes.
genes -> proteins(enzymes) -> catalyse reactions
工作环境：相对中和，36度温度
denature 变质，中毒
- staple 主食（长链糖）
- amylase 淀粉酶
- starch 淀粉
- iodine 碘
- glucose 葡萄糖(C₆H₁₂O₆, 光合作用生成)
- ATP 三个磷酸根
- ADP 两个磷酸根
- AMP 一个磷酸根
光合作用 photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to create oxygen and energy in the form of sugar(glucose,葡萄糖).
Cyclic phosphorylation generates ATP and is driven by light energy. 循环磷酸化产生 ATP，并由光能驱动。
光合作用也称光能合成（英语：photosynthesis），是许多食物网基层的等生产者（自养生物）利用光能将水、二氧化碳或硫化氢等无机物转变成可以储存化学能的有机物（比如碳水化合物）的生物过程[1]。根据化学反应所产生的副产品，光合作用可分为产氧光合作用（oxygenic photosynthesis）和不产氧光合作用（anoxygenic photosynthesis）两类，分别使用不同的感光色素（photopigment），而且会因为不同环境改变反应速率。通俗意义上的“光合作用”主要指产氧光合作用。
12H2O + 6CO2 —hν→ （与叶绿素产生化学作用）C6H12O6 （葡萄糖） + 6O2 + 6H2O
ATP(Energy Currency，可使用的能量)
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide that provides energy to drive and support many processes in living cells, such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, condensate dissolution, and chemical synthesis. Found in all known forms of life, it is often referred to as the “molecular unit of currency” of intracellular energy transfer.
mitochondria 线粒体 将glucose转化为ATP。
Cellular Reproduction: Mitosis and Meiosis(cell division,细胞繁殖：有丝分裂和减数分裂)
https://askabiologist.asu.edu/cell-division
If a cell can not stop dividing when it is supposed to stop, this can lead to a disease called cancer.
Depending on the type of cell, there are two ways cells divide—mitosis and meiosis. Each of these methods of cell division has special characteristics. One of the key differences in mitosis is a single cell divides into two cells that are replicas of each other and have the same number of chromosomes. This type of cell division is good for basic growth, repair, and maintenance. In meiosis a cell divides into four cells that have half the number of chromosomes. Reducing the number of chromosomes by half is important for sexual reproduction and provides for genetic diversity.
Mitosis Cell Division(非生殖细胞, Growth and repair)
Mitosis is a single cell divides into two cells that are replicas of each other and have the same number of chromosomes.
Mitosis is how somatic—or non-reproductive cells—divide. Somatic cells make up most of your body’s tissues and organs, including skin, muscles, lungs, gut, and hair cells. Reproductive cells (like eggs) are not somatic cells.
Cancer = uncontroled Mitosis
Meiosis Cell Division(sex cells，生殖细胞)
- sperm cells 精子
- egg cells 卵子
A cell divides into four cells that have half the number of chromosomes.
Meiosis is the other main way cells divide. Meiosis is cell division that creates sex cells, like female egg cells or male sperm cells. What is important to remember about meiosis? In meiosis, each new cell contains a unique set of genetic information. After meiosis, the sperm and egg cells can join to create a new organism.
Foundations of Genetics(Heredity)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8m6hHRlKwxY
Genetics is the study of heredity.
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA 脱氧核糖核酸又称去氧核糖核酸，是一种生物大分子，可组成遗传指令，引导生物发育与生命机能运作。主要功能是信息储存，可比喻为“蓝图”或“配方”。其中包含的指令，是建构细胞内其他的化合物，如蛋白质与核糖核酸所需。带有蛋白质编码的DNA片段称为基因。其他的DNA序列，有些直接以本身构造发挥作用，有些则参与调控遗传信息的表现。
Nucleotides: sugar and phosphate molecules 核苷酸：糖和磷酸分子 Bases: Thymine, adenine, guanine, and Cytosine(ACTG) 胸腺嘧啶、腺嘌呤、鸟嘌呤和胞嘧啶
Human Genome Project. Which comes risks and ethical questions.
One person has about 20000 genes in his DNA. They encode the molecules that make up your DNA.
- DNA: substance of which genes and chromosomes are made. A apiralling chain-like molecule made of nucleotides. DNA nucleotides come in 4 different types: A, C, T and G.
- Genes: segments of DNA located along the chromosomes. A long stretch of DNA that codes for something, usually a protein or a group of proteins.
- Chromosomes: store and transmit genetic information(long string of DNA). An entire chain of DNA along with a group stabilizing proteins.
- Alleles(alternative forms) 等位基因 represent different variations a gene.(a version of a gene, different people have different version of gene, hence different features or traits)
- dominant: always expressed
- recessive: nondominate
- Homezygous: an organism that inherits identical alleles for a trait from each parent(FF, ff)
- Heterozygous: different alleles for atrait are inherited(Ff,fF)
- phenotype 表型(apperance)
- law of segregation: the result of Mendel’s experiments on dominant and recessive inheritance let to Mendel’s first law.
- Mutation: any change in the nucleotide sequence of a chain of DNA/RNA.
- ribosomes: makes protein
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, totaling 46 chromosomes in their cells. They get 23 chromosomes from their mother and 23 from their father. Two sets of chromosomes, two of every gene.
For every gene a parent has, one of their two versions of it is randomly passed on to their child.
F: normal allele(dominat)
f: cystic fibrosis allele(recessive)
Parents: Ff, Ff
Children: FF, Ff, fF, ff
- How Mendel’s pea plants helped us understand genetics - Hortensia Jiménez Díaz
- Inheritance Explained || How do we inherit features from our parents?
Protein Synthesis
Transription: Scribe!, Fetch some RNA to dictate a message. Transcribe ath DNA into a message, mRNA.
Translation: mRNA + Ribosome(makes protein)
Amino Acid: (氨基酸) used to build protein
Discovering the Chemical Nature of the Gene
What is a GENE ? A Molecular Approach
The Origin and Diversity of Life
Evolution: change in population that is inherited over generations.
Factors that drive microevolution:
- migration
- natural selection
- mutation(advantages gene change)
- genetic drift(random)
DNA vs RNA
DNA is double-stranded, forming a double helix, while RNA is usually single-stranded. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, whereas RNA contains ribose. Furthermore, DNA uses the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine, while RNA uses adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine.
食物的消化过程
胃酸消化杀菌，胰腺分泌碱性，进入肠道
虫子
- woodlice 潮虫
- maggot 蛆
- germinate 发芽
Topics
- Wind pollination 风媒传粉
- freeze of frog 青蛙冬眠
- glucose: 葡萄糖
- thaw 解冻，融化
- rehydrate 补水
- fungi
- forest ecosystems
- parasite 寄生虫
- symbiotic relationship 共生关系
- swamps, marshes 沼泽，沼泽
- ferns 蕨类植物
- moths 飞蛾
- birds 鸟类
- birds homing 鸟类迁徙，导航，回巢的能力, pigeons 鸽子
- 鸟类的视力
How Are Living Things Classified?(five Kingdoms of Organisms)
The five Kingdoms of Organisms:
- Monera(Prokaryotes, 原核生物) 单细胞生物, single-celled organisms有机体. lack a nucleus in their cells. Bacteria and certain types of algae.(最原始)
- Protista 原生生物, A protist or protoctist is any eukaryotic(真核的) organism that is not an animal, land plant, or fungus. 可以或不可以光合作用，有单细胞，也有多细胞（比较原始，Importance: Ancestors of multicellular life）
- Fungi 菌类, multi-celled, molds, yeasts, mushrooms. they feed on decaying tissues of other organisms.（非植物，非动物，介于之间，基因像动物，外表像植物）
- Plantae 植物界, multicellular organisms, include ferns, mosses, and flowering and non-flowering plants. chlorophyll 叶绿素, can not move（不动，光合作用）
- Animalia 动物界, can move. insects, worms, fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals. eat other organisms.（动，吸取外界碳水）
Kingdom Monera 细菌🦠（prokaryotes，原核生物, single-cell organism, no nucleus, no membrane-bound）
Kingdom monera includes bacteria which most abundant micro-organism. Bacteria live in extreme habitats like hot springs, deserts, snow and deep oceans.
Prokaryotes are bacteria which are unicellular and have no distinct nucleus. They have a naked DNA. Structure is simple but behaviour is complex. 原核生物是单细胞细菌，没有明显的细胞核。 他们有裸露的DNA。 结构很简单，但行为很复杂。
They show the most extensive and metabolic diversity. Some of the bacteria are autotrophic i.e. they prepare their own food material from inorganic substances. 它们表现出最广泛的代谢多样性。 一些细菌是自养的，即它们从无机物质中制备自己的食物材料。
Vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophic i.e. they do not synthesize their own food but depend on other organisms or on dead organic matter for food.
They do have a cell wall, genetic material, cytoplasm, ribosomes. 细胞壁、遗传物质、细胞质、核糖体
This kingdom is divided into two groups: archaea bacteria(古细菌) and bacteria. Archaea bacteria is found in extreme environmets.
Bacteria is also found almost everywhere. Bacteria is very important to life on earth, althrough some cause disease, most are very helpful to us. They break down food in our stomach help the nitrogen cycle and even help make some of our food like sauerkraut. We cannot survive without bacteria.
- sphere shape 球形
- rod shape 棒状
- spiral shape 螺旋形状
Most members of the Monera kingdom reproduce asexually in a process called binary fission, but some reproduce sexually in a process called conjugation(共轭)
CONJUGATION, TRANSFORMATION, TRANSDUCTION (HORIZONTAL GENE TRANSFER)
Protists 原生生物（真核生物，次原始，多细胞生物的祖先）
Protists give rise to animals, plants, fungus.
antimicrobial resistance.
produce up to 50% of the world’s oxygen.
Choanoflagellates 领鞭毛虫
- mostly aquatic life
- unually unicellular
- eukaryotic
- Reproduction
- some asexual, some sexual, some both
- Feeding
- most heterotrophic, some autotrophic, parasitic
- Kingdom for life that doesn’t fit in animals, plant or fungi kingdom.
3 main categories:
- Animal-like
- Plant-like（algae）
- Fungi-like
Animal-like Protista
- AKA: Protozoans
- Heterotrophic: pathogens, parasties, predators
- classified by how they move:
Pseudopods: move w/
Protists and Fungi 原生生物和真菌
Protists(many can move, diverse group, like animal cells or plant cells):
- nucleus
- Membrane - Bound Organelles
Algae 藻类
光合作用，有水的地方。
Fungi(decomposer of ecosystem, mushrooms蘑菇, yeast发面, antibiotics抗生素, penicilin, mold霉菌)
Fungi get the energy they need by breaking down the remains of plants and animals. Organisms that get their energy this way called decomposers. Decomposers paly an important role in an ecosystem by helping to recycle dead organisms into nutrients in the soil.
Many fungi can do both sexual and asexual reproduction. Both of these forms of reproduction often involve the use of spores. Spores are spread by wind, by animals or another method. Fungi can also be parasites(寄生虫) of many organisms, like the nematode(线虫). Fungi can also attack plants and therefore cause destruction to crops(农作物).
But fungi do a lot of good, they excellent decomposers which is very important for ecosystems. Many types of fungi make up food sources for other organisms(有机体). Many fungi are involved in some of the foods humans eat: like producting some types of cheese.
They can’t photosynthesize and lack the distinguishing features of plants such as stems, leaves, flowers or fruits. Mushrooms now belong to their own group called fungi. Some common fungi are puff balls, bracket fungi, molds, mildews and truffles(泡芙球、支架真菌、霉菌、霉菌和松露).
It is true that fungi can problematic.
In autumn, we can pick mushrooms in the forest. Fungi are neither plant nor animal. Funngi also have the ability to control organisms. The genetic code of mushroom has more in common with ours than a potatoes.
It includes chanterelles and shiitakes, but also molds and yeasts. 它包括鸡油菌和香菇，还包括霉菌和酵母。
Mushrooms are the part of the fungus that spreads spores(孢子) in order to reproduce.
symbiotic relationship 共生关系
Fungi decomposes dead organic matter as a carbon source.
There are maybe 5 million species of fungi on our planet. Fall, variety.
Mushrooms are the most famous fungi.
Spores is the primary way for fungi to spread.
saprotrophic fungi 腐蚀性的真菌, related to dead wood.
arboreal fungi 树栖真菌
They paly a key role in the circulation of elements and energy in nature.
The fungi get carbohydrates from the trees and in return, they give the tree nitrogen and phosphorus. 真菌从树木中获取碳水化合物，作为回报，它们为树木提供氮和磷。
decomposition organic things.
- pathogens 病原体
- mold 模具，霉菌
- fungal hyphae 真菌菌丝
- soil pathogens 土壤病原体
- majestic 雄伟
- larch boletes 落叶松牛肝菌
- bay boletes 湾牛肝菌
- boletus
- birch boletes
- boletes 牛肝菌
- milkcap 乳帽
- ectomycorrhizal 外生菌根
- saprophyte fungi 腐生真菌
- indicator organisms: useful for observing the impatct of changes in forest ecosystem due to human activity.
- perennial tree 多年生乔木
- porcinos 牛肝菌
- chanterelles 鸡油菌
- termite eggs 白蚁卵
- gills or spores 鳃或孢子
- hydnoids 水螅
- hallucinogenic 致幻剂
One of the most dangerous mushroom killers is undoubtely the amanita phalloides(鬼笔鹅膏), commonly knows as the death cap.
Fungi produce life-saving medicines such as penicillin. Yeast(酵母) is fungus, without which we’d have no bread wine beer or cheese. Even corn is made from fungus. Basically without fungi there would be no middle class dinner parties. Mycelium can be used to make packaging and clothing. Fungi have been used to clean up oil spills and an itaconic acid derived from a fungus is even used to make lego. If the activity of soil fungi were to increase they could potentially solve global warmming on their own.
霉菌（过期的食物上面），酵母。没有叶绿素，无法进行光合作用，需要从其他地方获取养分。
The Seven Levels of Classification(Linnaean System gave Latin names)
- kingdom 界(5 kingdoms: Monera,Protista,Fungi,Plantae,Animalias)
- phylum 门
- class 钢
- order 目
- family 科
- genus 叔
- species 种
When scientists want to specify an organism, they typically use the genus and the species. The first part of the name tells its genus. The second part of the name tells its species. For example, the scientific name for human beings is Homo sapiens. Homo is the genus, and sapiens is the species.
Swarm intelligence 群体智能
What are two principles of swarm intelligence based on the ant example?
- Individuals act on information in their local environment
- Individuals instinctively follow a set of rules
Ant/birds
Each individual, each individual ant operates by instinctively following a simple set of rules when foraging for food.
当觅食的时候，每个个体，每个个体蚂蚁本能地遵循一套简单的规则。
Rule number one: deposit a chemical marker called a pheromone.
第一条规则：释放一种被称为费洛蒙的化学标记。（这里有个问题，费洛蒙可以翻译成“信息素”但是全文都翻译的“费洛蒙”，是否翻译需要全文替换？）
And rule two: follow the strongest pheromone path.
规则二：跟随最强的费洛蒙路径。
Antibiotic
Antibiotics can be bacteriostatic(to stop) or bactericidal(to kill).
Penicillins are bactericidal.
Antibiotics do not work on viruses, because viruses have a different structure to bacteria.
Immune System(Lines of defense)
- First Line of Defense(non-specific): skin, mocous membrances
- Second Line of Defense(non-specific): macrophages(phagocytic white blood cells), inflammatory response
- Third Line of Defense(specific): B and T cells(lymphocytes - specific type of white blood cells)
T-Cell，naive T-cells, Thymus
动物实验中国，长期（几十年）减少30%卡路里摄取(calorie-restricted diet)：
- Younger and healther
- More naive T-Cell, able to attack new bacteries
And T-cells are a part of body’s immune system.
而淋巴细胞是身体免疫系统的一部分。
They can recognize and eliminate cells from outside the body that might cause disease.
它们可以辨识并消灭那些来自体外，可能会引起疾病的细胞。
At that point we call it a memory T-cell because it’s learned to recognize a protein marker that identifies this particular kind of bacterium.
到那时，我们就称它为记忆淋巴细胞，因为它已经学会辨识一种可以认出这种特定细菌的蛋白质标记了。
But before it’s learned to recognize any particular protein from outside the body, we call it naive. Okay?
但在它学会辨认体外的任一特定蛋白质之前，我们称它为幼稚。明白了吗？
It relates to caloric restriction.
有关于卡路里限制的研究。
Professor: Apparently not. Similar results have come from experiments on other animals from roundworms to most recently Rhesus monkeys.
教授：显然不是。关于其他动物的实验，不管是针对蛔虫还是最近对恒河猴的实验，都得到了相似的结果。
Professor: Apparently not. Similar results have come from experiments on other animals from roundworms to most recently Rhesus monkeys.
教授：显然不是。关于其他动物的实验，不管是针对蛔虫还是最近对恒河猴的实验，都得到了相似的结果。
Articles
Biology class: wood frog’s freezing during winter(❌2/6)
- 有很多词汇不熟悉
- 老师语速快
- 记笔记导致漏信息
Words:
- antifreeze 防冻剂
- urine 尿
- glucose
- concoction 混合物
- frostbite 冻疮
- metabolic activity 代谢活动
- grueling 严罚
So before we close today, I thought I’d mention a biological event that’s a part of the transition from winter to spring, something you can go outside and watch if you have some patience.
The freezer that generated from its liver prevents cells themselfves from freezing, only the water between cells froze.
It turns out that the frog’s liver pumped a syrupy, natural antifreeze into his cells in the fall. It kept his organs from freezing. Only the water between cells froze.
North American wood frog.
As the sugar mixes with urine in the blood, it creates homemade antifreeze.