如果GRE难度100，托福难度20，雅思15，六级6，四级是4。
凡是遇到句子不舒服（不通顺，不按正常主谓宾结构走的），一般都是倒装或省略。成分太长的要后置。省略的可能是that/which等。
人 + 动词 + that(宾语从句)， 这个动词都可以表示认为。
托福长难句（万门大学 - 苏剑南）
1.1 中文的思维顺序
断句与删减
中文思维顺序：先大，后小。绕。冗长的修饰结构一般前置处理。
枯藤老树昏鸦， 小桥流水人家， 古道西风瘦马， 夕阳西下， 断肠人在天涯。（重点）
英文先说重点。简单直接，有话直说。冗长的修饰结构一般后置处理。
江南好，风景旧曾谙。（重点思想） 日出江花红胜火， 春来江水绿如蓝。 能不忆江南？
2.1 主从句的判断方法
主句一个，从句多个。主句和从句连接的东西叫连词。
以连词连接的句子均为从句，全句中有且仅有一个主句，句前无连词的完整句。
Because A, B.
A, because B, even if C, when D, if E.
解释性从句：
which/that/when/where/before/after/as
逻辑性从句：
- because/as/since 因果
- but/yet/although 转折
- while/whereas 比较
- and/or… 并列
补充要点：
- in which = where
- on which = where
- for which = why
- at which = when
- of which = where, its
托福不考：时间、地点、who从句、破折号之间的信息
好多个动词，最后一个动词比较重要。好多个介词结构，最前面的名词最重要。上来先找到句子的主谓宾。but之后比较重要，but之前比较次要。
These plants are termed opportunists because they rely on their seeds’ falling into settings where competing plants have been removed by natural processes, such as along an eroding riverbank, on landslips, or where a tree falls and creates a gap in the forest canopy.
3.1 长难句断句方法
- 断句方法
- 删减次要信息
标点符号断句：
- 逗号,
- 冒号:
- 分号;
- 破折号–
连词断句
- which
- that
- when
- where
- before
- after
- as
- because
- since
- but
- yet
- although
- while
- whereas
- and/or
3.2 删减次要信息
标点符号，破折号。
次要信息
- 分词结构（修饰信息，修饰名词，状语）
- 介词结构（修饰名词）
- 插入语信息（时间、地点、人物，补充说明，托福中很少考）
- 非完整句
- 其他：让步/时间/地点/解释信息
破折号之后是解释，可以删掉。破折号之间的事解释，可以删掉。
两个逗号之间，位于名词之后，解释说明的，为次要信息。
主谓宾/主系表（SVO）为完整信息。其他为非完整信息。
题干是题目的（出题的）核心，问句。答案在解释信息里面找。
逗号后面有连词可能是从句，没有连词的可能是非完整句。
托福阅读题目做错的原因，拿着次要信息去做题。
focal point 焦点
4.1 分词结构的来源
“分”的来源？
形容词，修饰名词，表示”静态“。a round table, a beautiful girl, a yellow duck.
This is an important issue.
This is a greatly important and urgent issue.
This is an issue of great importance and emergency.
副词。不能单独使用的词，去掉不影响整句话语法结构：修饰动词及形容词，表示“动态”
run rapidly/slowly
”分词“的来源。需要用动态的感觉来修饰名词。比如，微笑。把动词借过来加ing，叫做分词，用来修饰名词，表达名词的动态效果。
- a yelling girl 大叫的女孩
- a crowed room 动态感
- a fighting man
- a smilling face 一张笑脸（找不到一个形容词表示正在微笑）
- evolving species
- a flying bullet
- a falling angel 动态
- rolling leaves in the wind
All I can see is your jaw (going up and down.)
Catharine captivated by Damon’s charm found her falling love with him.
Catharine who was captivated by Damon’s charm found her falling love with him.
cap- 捕捉
The breeze streaming through the open car windows(形容词作用，修饰breeze) made Laura Kucera’s long blond hair dance as she pulled up(拉手刹) at her friend Sara Tello’s house.
Then Laura noticed a white pickup:
-
coming down the street
-
rolling over the street
-
sliding over the street
-
rushing down the street
-
jumping over the street
-
现在分词：主动/进行（动词+ing）
-
过去分词：被动/过去(可以替代定语从句)
The images produced by the camera obscura, …, were already familiar.
分词太多，会分不清主要动词。
4.4 分词在写作中的使用（万门大学，托福长难句）
- 现在分词 vs. 定语从句
- 现在分词 vs. 状语从句
在写作中，现在分词短语通常可以用来替换句中的定语从句，使句子结构更精简，形成多样化的句式。
A new stadium covering an area of 10 square kilometers will be built in the north of the city.
The number of international students who came to western countries increased greatly in recent years.
The number of international students coming to western countries increased greatly in recent years.(思路：students有两个动词，都是主动发出， come 和 increased，可以考虑把其中一个动词降级为现在分词)
This is a tourist book that gives information about the dos and don’ts one should know when they travel to South East Asia.
This is a tourist book giving information about the dos and don’ts one should know when they travel to South East Asia.
One can hardly imagine the number of bacteria growing inside a refrigerator.
分词结构做状语
The government planned to build another metro line across the city, because they hope to reduce the traffic congestion during the rush hour.
The government planned to build another metro line across the city, hoping to reduce the traffic congestion during the rush hour.
When they know the government’s new environment protection policy, many high-tech companies started developing products that are environmental-friendly.
knowing the government’s new environment protection policy, many high-tech companies started developing products that are environmental-friendly.
As the company did not have enough funding, it had no choice but to temporarily stop the R&D plan.
Not having enough funding, it had no choice but to temporarily stop the R&D plan.
Majority of the senior citizens who live in this community are offered free annual health check.
Majority of the senior citizens living in this community are offered free annual health check.
When the employers talk to the candidates, they try to decide whether their education, experience and other qualifications worth the investment.
Talking to the candidates, employers try to decide whether their education, experience and other qualifications worth the investment.(后半句的主语是 employers, talking to 的主语也是 employers)
Fortunately, such efforts which are made by the university through all of these projects would sharpen graduates’ competitive edge to the best, which will encourage them to sooner familiarize and adapt to their future workplace.
Fortunately, such efforts made by the university through all of these projects would sharpen graduates’ competitive edge to the best, encouraging them to sooner familiarize and adapt to their future workplace.
Walking to the store, I spotted my favorite car.
5.0 介词结构(越往前越重要，一连串修饰往后排)
介于两个词之间，介词后跟名词。表示：时间、地点、方式
-
名词 + [介词+名词+介词+名词 …]
-
动词 + [介词+名词+介词+名词 …]
-
介词 + 非完整句
-
up, on
-
down, under, beneath, below
-
in, inside, within
-
out
-
by
-
of 的，属性
-
off 脱离，关闭
-
through 通过物理空间，通过什么方式
-
from…
我可以由介词猜出动词的意思。
from: come from, originate from, emanate from
例子：
- study at school
- the girl in read is my classmate
- write by pen
- under this situation/condition
A of B in C in D through E off F by H into I … 核心为A
6.0 插入语结构（补充解释说明，突然强加进去）
- 双逗号之间，不是完整的句子
- 双破折号之间
7.0 其他非完整信息
8.0 平行并列结构
陈琦 长难句（《GRE\GMAT\LSAT长难句300例精讲精练》）
- 倒装(修饰成分后置，避免头重脚轻，宾语后置因为可能太长)
- 省略（that,相同成分省略）
- 长句
倒装
- 介词结构倒装
- 分词结构倒装
- 宾语倒装
- 定语从句
- 同位语从句
- 主语倒装
介词结构倒装
- an apple on the table 桌子上的苹果
- the concept of freedom of the sea from the proprietary claims of nations
to 的“合二为一”
- a garden to the building(介词结构)
- the attempt to heal the world(不定时表将来)
分词结构倒装
- a girl sitting on the chair(现在分词)
- a boy interested in politics(过去分词)
宾语倒装
- Mother puts(verb) into bags the books(宾语后置) that are needed by children.(因为有that定语从句，太长了)
- Scientists dismiss as fanciful the idea（宾语） of sudden changes in a genetic code.（GRE）
dismiss(因为不重要，不理会) sth. as faciful
- Q：宾语倒装为什么？A：因为宾语长
- 如何判定为长？宾语后面有修饰成分（介词，定语从句，分词等），形容词放在名词前不倒装
定语从句和同位语从句
-
The boy who is palying football is my friend.(定语从句)
-
The concept/fact/belief that he is a student is suspicious(可疑地). 同位语从句
-
an article that is welcome among the academia.(定语从句)
-
the temperature at which the reaction takes place.(定语从句)
-
a fact that the Earth revolve around the sun.(同位语从句)
定语从句和同位语从句区分方法。如果从句中的成分是完整的，就是同位语从句，充当解释前面名词的作用。从句缺成分的则是定语成分，充当形容词限定作用。
主语倒装
it(形式主语) is important that …
- It is possible to rocket to fame overnight.(主语后置)
- It is possible that a man could rocket to fame overnight.(主语从句后置)
省略
- 平行结构省略
- 定语从句省略
- 无头句
平行结构
and, or, not, not only… but also…
He likes playing football and basketball.
He likes playing football and he likes playing basketball.
It highlights an aspect of her literary interests very different from the traditional picture of the “poetic” novelist concerned with states of reverie and vision and (concerned) with following the intricate pathways of individual consciousness.
定语从句省略
The folktales (that) Perroult collected and retold were not solely French in origin.
如何判断定语从句省略？
两个名词连用：
- 第一个名词修饰第二个?
- 如果不修饰，则省略that
无头句省略
When applied to the political area, this theory(理论) works very well.
如何处理无头句？直接看都好后面的内容，找到句子的真正主语，带着主语再回读无头句。
长句
句子变长的原因：
In response to biologists who question how organisms presumable working for their own selfish ends could have evolved to behave in a way that benefits not only the planet but the organisms as well, cooling benefits the algae, which remain at the ocean surface, because it allows the cooled upper layers of the ocean to sink and then the circulating water carries nutrients upward from the depths below.
句子简化，剥掉句子复杂外衣
去除介词+名词
- 介词+名词（补充）
- 介词+动名词（动名词是名词特性，动名词一般带宾语，连同动名词一起做名词成分）
- 介词+名词性从句
去除“副词“
副词一般表达程度或频率。
去除从句
- 去掉状语的“连词+主语+谓语”结构
- 人物从句
- 事物从句
- 介词+关系代词从句
去除不定式、分词
去除不定式
名词接不定式修饰名词。 I have lots of clothes to wash.
句子接不定式，做状语。I went home early to watch TV.
To watch TV, I went home early.
去除现在分词(修饰名词或作状语)
修饰名词： There are many people (who are) seeking for new jobs.
做状语： Watching TV, I lay on my bed.
去除过去分词（修饰名词，或放在句子开头做状语）
The poet (who was) known in the country passed away last week. 主干：The poet passed away.
有很多时候，过去分词会放在句子的开头，其构成是对状语从句的省略，因为状语从句的主语和主句的主语是一致的
Asked the question, I was silent. = As I was asked the question, I was silent.
主要：I was silent.
掌握段落组织模式，看穿作者意欲何为
演绎形
开头总结，后面说明。说明文。
匹配性（对比）
两种事物对比，议论文。
假设-真实型
提出普遍观点，论述并说明自己的观点或态度，或进行反驳，阐述真实的情况。议论文
问题-解决型
提出问题，解决问题。
连词
time
when, since, before, after, as, until,while, by the time, as soon as
if
if, as if, once, unless, as long as, provided that 倘若, in case
cause
because, since, as, now that.
although
although, though, even if, even though
中级
并列句
and, but, or
Newman notes(说) that Portland has about the same population as Perth and had a similar population density at the time.
I learned TOEFL reading and returned books to the library.
She invented and patented special arrangements of mirrors and *concocted（制造） chemical dyes for her draperies(衣物).
名词性从句
主语从句
Why people are prepared to tolerate a four-hour journey each day for the dubious privilege of living in the country is beyond me.
That (the equipment of modern camping becomes more sophisticated) is a brighter promise for the hopeful traveler (who has sworn to get away from it all(摆脱现代世界)).
It’s no secret that many children would be healthier and happier with adoptive parents(收养) than with the parents(that nature deals them)
宾语从句
I know that…
than(可省略),whether/if,who,which,when,where,why
suggest, demand, order that you (should) do…
People in less developed countries often imagine that they can become rich simply by emigrating to America.
Managers of this type often do not realize how disastrous this policy may be for the men’s health and the company’s reputation.
A assert that B is influenced by …, by the C in which …
A requires that …
Anthropologists wondered where … came from.
表语从句
从句在系动词be之后。引导词：that, whether/if, who, which, when, where,why
The problem is (who we can get to replace him).
The problem for universities is that (if those benefits fail materialise, students notice).
Our schools are where we send our children to get a practical education–not to pursue knowledge for the sake of knowledge.
- pursue 追求
- for the sake of 为了
Galileo’s greatest glory was that (in 1609 he was the first person to turn the newly invented telescope to the heavens to prove that the planets revolve around the sun rather than around the earth.)
The problem with novelty(新奇), however, is that [it tends to] trigger the brain’s fear system.
A commonly accepted rule of civilized society is that when pulic health is threatened, privacy rights must be compromised.
conspire with sb 与某人合谋
But the truth is that faculty members, and even students, consipire with administrators (to keep the lecture system alive and well.)
The general rule of social precedence is that people of greater importance precede those of lesser importance.
But the one thing we know for sure is that with each advance in globalization and the I.T. revolution, the best jobs will require workers to have more and better education to make themselves above average.
- vigilance 警觉
- blunt 坦率的
- relentless 连续的
- fatiguing 令人疲倦的
The blunt truth of the matter is that (human beings are not designed for tasks which require relentless vigilance): for the sophisticated human brain these are fatiguing and boring.
Perhaps the most commonly voiced objection (to volunteer participation during the under-graduate years) is that it consumes time and energy that the students might otherwise devote to “academic” pursuits.
同位语从句
名词后面跟从句，一般两种情况：同位语或定语。
同位语：用一个名词对前面的一个名词解释，本名词被称为同位语。
能接同位语从句的名词一般有两个特点：1. 抽象；2. 有内涵， 如idea, fact, news, truth, discovery, report, thought, statement, suggestion, conclusion, possibility, opinion等。但如 building, ship 等名词后一般不能接同位语从句。
引导词：that, whether/if, who, which,what, when, where,why
如果句子的谓语较短，同位语从句经常与所修饰的名词分隔。
I saw a man over there, our teacher(同位语).
A saying goes that practice makes perfect.
同位语从句和定语从句的区别？
The news that he passed the exam was encouraging.（同位语从句）
The news that she told me was encouraging.(定语从句)
分这么细，有点儿过度了，其实主要是看that指代什么。 – yongqiang
Reports came into London Zoo (that a wild puma had been spotted forty-five miles south of London).
A large number of insitutions(制度，机构) are premised（前提） on the assumption that intervention in the internal affairs of others is often desirable.
premise v. an idea or theory on which a statement or action is based
The research project is based on the premise stated earlier. 這項研究計劃是基於早先提出的假設之上的。
Others have attributed increased cheating to the fact (that today’s youth are far more pragmatic(功利/实用主义) than their more idealistic predecessors.)
There is little evidence (that traditional efforts to boost financial know-how help students make better decisions outside the classroom.)
Plato expressed the idea that (humor is simply a delighted feeling of superiority over others.)
The fact (that a woman has had an education) may simply indicate her family’s wealth or that it values its children more highly.
value v. 重视
These leaders are living proof (that prevention works) and (that we can manage the health problems) that come naturally with age.
这些领导人就是活生生的证据，表明预防是可行的，而且表明人们能够解决随年龄增长而产生的健康问题。
A century ago, Freud formulated his revolutionary theory that (dreams were the disguised shadow of our unconscious desires and fears.) 梦是我们无意识的欲望和恐惧的伪装阴影。
One argument (used to support the idea) that employment will continue to be the dominant form of work, and that employment will eventually become available for all who want it, is that working time will continue to fall.
同位语从句大多由连词 that 引导 (不能省略)。常用置于抽象名词 fact, idea, thought，notion, opinion, news, evidence, hope, belief, suggestion, decision, conclusion 等后面，用来解释或说明这些名词的具体含义或内容, 在逻辑上表现为同位关系。
例句：
The news that our women volleyball team had won the championship encouragedus all greatly.
我们女排赢得冠军的消息极大地鼓舞了我们大家。
There was little hope that they would survive.
他们活下来的希望很小。
He made a proposal that the meeting should be postponed.
他建议会议推迟召开。
I’ve come from Mr. Wang with a message that he won’t be able to see you this afternoon.
我从王先生那里得到消息，他今天下午不能来看你了。
We came to the decision that we must act at once.
我们决定必须立即行动。
They are familiar with the opinion that all matter consists of atoms.
他们熟悉所有物质都由原子组成的观点。
Despite repeated assurances that the product is safe, many people have stopped buying it.
尽管已反复保证了该产品的安全性，很多人还是不再购买。
He always had an illusion that his position was not secure in the company.
他总有一种幻觉, 他在公司的职位很不安全。
When I first met him I got the impression that he was a shy sort of person.
初次见到他时，我觉得他属于那种害羞的人。
Strive to change your own fate. Never believe the notion that if one is born poor, one is destined to die poor.
努力去改变你自己的命运。千万不要去相信这样的说法：如果一个人生来贫穷，那他注定要贫穷着死去。
The conclusion that high and rising property prices can throttle economic activity carries important implications for how policymakers should treat investment in land and housing.
房地产价格高且不断上涨会抑制经济活动，这一结论对于决策者应如何处理土地和房
产投资问题，具有重要意义。
● 有时同位语从句可以不紧跟在它所说明的名词后，而被别的词语隔开，在语法上叫做分隔式同位语从句。
例句：
The thought came to her that maybe she had left the door open when she left home.
她突然想起可能在她离开家时没把门关上。
However, no evidence could be found that would throw direct suspicion on him.
然而，没有找不到可以直接怀疑他的证据。
An early example was a bet made by Michael Marcus in 1975 that a surge of oil revenue would force Saudi Arabia to revalue its currency.
一个早期的例子是迈克尔 · 马库斯 (Michael Marcus)在1975年押注的，他认为石油收入的激增将迫使沙特阿拉伯重新评估其货币。
● that 引导同位语从句与定语从句区别
that在同位语从句中是连词, 只起连接作用, 无具体词义, that 不可省略; that 引导的同
位语从句，是前面先行词的内容。
that 在定语从句中是关系代词, 它在从句中充当一定成分 —— 主语或宾语, 有具体词
意, 作宾语时还可以省略.
The news that he will leave for Shanghai is true.
他将要去上海的消息是真的. (同位语从句，that从句是名词news的具体内容)
The news (that) he told me yesterday was true.
昨天他告诉我的那个消息是真的? (定语从句, that从句修饰名词，在从句中作told的
宾语,可以省略）
● 由wh-word引导同位语从句
有些名词，如 question, idea, doubt, problem 等后面可用疑问词 wh-ward 作连词，引导同位语从句。
例句：
We have some doubt whether they can complete the task on time. （if 不能引导同位语从句）
我们怀疑他们是否准时完成任务。
There’s no doubt who is the best candidate.
毫无疑问，谁是最佳人选。
I have no idea when he will come back.
我不知道他什么时候回来。
The problem when the meeting should be held has not been decided.
什么时候开会的问题还没有决定。
We don’t understand the problem why this is the best choice.
我们不明白这个问题，为什么这是最好的选择。
The question how and why those people got the information still worried him.
那些人是如何以及为什么得到这些信息的，这个问题仍然困扰着他。
形容词性从句（定语从句）
定语（形容词）修饰名词（代词）的。
定语从句即在句中用一个具有主谓结构的完整的句子来充当定语，修饰前面的名词（短语）或代词称为先行词。
常见引导词：that, who, which, where, when, why.
定语从句分为限定性和非限定性。限定性定语从句的关系词和先行词之间不用逗号隔开，而非限定性定语从句则用逗号隔开，不能以that引导。
Most foods (that we consume on a daily basis like potatoes and rice) are loaded with carbohydrates.
Those who (contemplate the beauty of the earth) find reserves of strength (that will endure as long as life exists.)
Many parents do not display the degree of respect for their parents (that people in more traditional or family-oriented societies commonly display).
There was a time not long ago when new science Ph.D.s in the Unitied States were expected to pursue a career path in academia.
Countries (with the highest scores) tend to be clustered(集中) in the West, where gender discrimination is against the law, and equal rights are constitutionally enshrined.
enshrine v. 神圣化
Any engineer will recognize these as characteristic of typical engineering problem, (which doctors and engineers have worked together to solve), in order to bring a fresh life to people (who would otherwise be disabled.)
“介词+关系代词”引导的定语从句概念
The age (at which young people are allowed to drive any vehicle) should be raised to at least 21.
The mechanism (by which brain cells store memories) is not clearly understood.
Happiness (without meaning) characterizes a relatively shallow, self-absorbed or even selfish life, (in which) things go well, needs and desires are easily satisfied, and complicated relationships are avoided.
Most journalists learn to see the world through a set of standard templates (into which they plug each day’s events). 多数记者使用一套标准化的创作模式报道世界，将日常事件套入其中即可。
In early 1976, Mau Pialug, a freshman, led an expedition (in which he sailed a traditional Polynesian boat across 2,500 miles of ocean from Hawaii to Tahiti.)
He had at last been allowed to send a fax (in which he informed the editor that he had been arrested while counting the 1,084 steps leading to the 15-foot wall which surrounded the president’s palace.)
Silicon Valley is a magnet (to which numerous talented engineers, scientists and entrepreneurs from overseas flock in search of fame, fast money and to participate in a technological revolution) (whose impact on mankind will surely surpass the epoch-making European Renaissance and Industrial Revolution of the bygone(过去的) age.)
副词性从句（状语从句）
状语从句是在句中作状语成份的句子，状语从句可以修饰谓语或整个句子。状语从句的位置灵活，可放在句首、句中、或句末，位于句首时，常用逗号隔开，如从句较短且与主句关系密切时，可不用逗号。
副词修饰动词，形容词或某些副词。
九大类：时间、地点、原因、条件、结果、让步、目的、方式、比较。
时间状语从句
时间状语从句的引导词：when, whenever, while, after, as, before, no sooner … than…, hardly/scarcely… when…, the minute, the moment, the instant, every time, directily, instantly, immediately等
- hero 男主人公
- heroine 女主人公
- poison 下毒，投毒
The reader’s hair stands on end when he reads in the final pages of the novel that the heroine, a dear old lady who had always been so kind to everybody, had, in her youth, poisoned every one of her five hunbands.
If you think you’ll abandon meat and become a vegetarian,( you have the choice of) very expensive organically-grown vegetables or a steady diet of pesticides (every time you think you’re eating fresh salads and vegetables, or just having an innocent glass of water!)
I had no sooner got off the ship than I was assailed by a man (who wanted to sell me a diamond ring.)
No sooner had I got off the ship than I was assailed by a man who wanted to sell me a diamond ring.
When highly gifted students (in any domain) talk about (what was important to the development of their abilities), they are far more likely to mention their families than their schools or teachers.
The lecture system reduces feedback to a minimum, so that the lecturer can neither judge (how well students understand the material) nor benefit from their questions or comments.
When Thomas Keller, one of America’s foremost chefs, announced (that on Sept.1 he would abolish the practice of tipping at Per Se, his luxury restaurant in New York City, and replaces it with European-style service charge), I knew three groups would be opposed: customers, servers and restaurant owners.
directly conj. 一…就
He thought that (directly internal confidence in the government declined), its financial structure would be in danger.
These obligations are so baked into American values that few parents stop to ask whether they worth the efforts.
The newly described languages were often so strikingly different from the well studied languages of Europe and Southeast Asia that some scholors even accused Boas and Sapir of fabricating their data.
地点状语从句
引导词: where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere. 句首和主句用逗号间隔。
Corn flourishes best where the ground is rich.
There were ovations(欢迎) everywhere they went.
Where the cost of government is high, resources for development are correspondingly low.
Where the white man has invaded a primitive culture// the most destructive effects have come not from physical weapons but from ideas.
Where there is a fire, there is smoke.
Where there is life, there is hope.
Where there is nepotism(裙带关系), there is corruption.
Where there is marriage without love, there is love without marriage.
原因状语从句
because, as, for, since, considering, in that, now that, given that, on the ground that.
Now that(原因) a tunnel has been built through the mountains, the Pass is less dangerous (than before.)
This exhibition received a great deal of attention in the press（提出疑问）, for(原因) though the pictures were supposed to be the work of famous artists, they had (in fact) been painted by Dickie.
She was sentimentally(感情上地) attached to this house（提出疑问）, for(因为) even though it was far too big for her needs, she persisted in living there long after her husband’s death. 她对这栋房子有感情依恋，因为尽管房子对她来说太大，在她丈夫去世多年后她还是坚持长年住在那儿。
Economy is one
outlay n. 花费，消费
UFOs are generally ignored since most scientists don’t consider the evidence for them to be strong enough (to bear serious consideration.)
The life form will nevertheless resemble us in that it should communicate with its fellows, be interested in the Universe, live on a planet (orbiting a star like our Sun).
Because different mixings of coins had different amounts of gold and silver, even though they bore the same value, some coins were worth more than others as commodities.
Hydrogen is the fundamental element of the universe (in that(for the reason that) it provides the building blocks) from which the other elements are produced.
We’re obliged to them because some of these languages have since vanished, as the peoples (who spoke them) died out or became assimilated and lost their native languages.
- be obliged to sb. 感谢某人
- be obliged to do sth 有义务做
- in case of sth
- emergency
- confused 迷惑的
- helpless
People were afraid to leave their houses, for although the police had been ordered to stand by in case of emergency, they were just as confused and helpless as anybody else.
The behavioral sciences have been slow to change (partly because the explanatory items often seem to be directly observed and partly because other kinds of expalnations have been hard to find).
条件状语从句
引导词：if, unless, providing/provided(如果, only if), as long as(只要), only if (只有), on condition that
Providing(on the condition or understanding that.)there is no objection, we will pass the bill. 如果没有反对意见，我们将通过这项决议。
Experts confirmed (that a puma will not attack a human being unless it is cornered.)
If there is any effect of noise upon metal health (it must be so small that present methods of psychiatric diagnosis cannot find it.)
- reputable 有名望的
- broker 经纪人
- touched 感动的
- character 性格，个性
- infallibility 一贯正确
- faith 信念，信心
Parents would be greatly surprised and deeply touched, if they realized how much belief their children usually have in their character and infallibility, and how much this faith meas to a child.
Most children have such a high ideal of their parents, unless the parents themselves have been unsatisfactory, that it can hardly hope to stand up to a realistic evaluation.
结果状语从句
- so that …
- so … that …
- such … that …
- to the degree that
- to the extent that
- to such a degree that,
- to such an extent that
These obligations are so baked into American values that few parents stop to ask whether they are worth the efforts.
Noisy confrontation between hunters and saboteurs have become so common that they are almost as much a part of hunting as the pursuit of foxes itself.
Home appliances will become so smart that controlling and operating them will result in the breakout of a new psychological disorder – kitchen rage.
Lifts stopped working, so that you had the unpleasant task of finding your way down hundreds of flights of stairs.
Homelessness has reached such proportions that local government can’t cope.
让步状语从句
though, although, while, whereas, even though/even if, whatever, wherever, however, whenever
Though it may be possible to measure the value of material goods in terms of money, it is extremely difficult to estimate the value of the services which people perform for us.
- measure
- in terms of
- extremely
- estimate
- perform
It is always wiser and safer to face up to reality, however painful it may be at the moment.
He thinks of the object, whatever its size, as if he were holding it (completely enclosed in the hollow of his hand.)
- object
- enclose
- hollow
While you need to employ both thoughts to get to a finished result, they cannot work in parallel no matter how much we might like to think so.
While drunk driving remains a criticial problem, the facts (about aggressive driving) are surely as disturbing.
- be filled with 充满
- vision 愿景
- conform 顺从，适应
Whereas (in the late sixties and seventies,) students were filled with visions about changing the world, today’s students feel great pressure (to conform and succeed.)
While there is evidence that instructors must work harder to run a distance learning course for a variety of reasons, they won’t be paid more, and might well be paid less.
目的状语从句
so that, in order that, in the hope that, lest, in case, for fear that.
We should start early so that we might get there before noon.
They stepped into a helicopter and flew high in the sky in order that they have a bird’s-eye view of the city.
as … as possible 尽可能
It’s best to be as short, clear and factual as possible, in order that there may be no misunderstanding.
- gently 温柔地
- crept 爬行
- awake 唤醒
He pushed the door gently and crept out of the room for fear that he should awake the baby.
- journalist 记者over
- state 夸大
- create 创造，制造
- sensation 轰动
Some journalists often overstate the situation so that their news may create a great sensation.
方式状语从句
as(正如), just as …, so,
As …, so …
as if / as though(好像)
(in) the way
Just as the majority eat too much, so the majority sleep too much.
You can make a mental blueprint of a desire **as you would make a blueprint of a house.
Television does look as if it will be less popular in the world of the future.
In the past few decades men behaved as if their supplies of minerals were inexhaustible.
As unselfishness is the real test of strong affection, so unselfishness ought to be the real test of the highest kind of art.
affection 感情
比较状语从句
The + 比较级 …, the + 比较级 … 越…..,越…..
not so much … as / but … 与其…不如…
not/no…any more than …… 与……一样都不……
no more … than …
no less … than …
not more … than ….
not less … than …
The more rural the community is, the more uniform the customs of child upbringing(抚育) are.
The more specific you can be about what you need from them, the easier it is for them to assist you.
specific/assist
The greater population there is in a locality, the greater the need is for water, transportation（交通）, and disposal(处理) of refuse(废物). 一个地方的人口越多，对水、交通和垃圾处理的需求就越大。
The more democratic the process, the more public transport is favored.
The more effort put in and the wider the whole school involvement, the more substantial the results are likely to be.
The more students who enroll in an online course but don’t come to campus, the more school saves on keeping the lights on in the classrooms, paying doorkeepers, and maintaining parking lots. 注册在线课程但不来学校的学生越多，学校在维持教室照明、支付门卫工资和维护停车场方面节省的费用就越多。
The reason for this is not so much that he has at his command only a fairly limited vocabulary, but that he is suddenly thrust(猛推) into the world of ideas.
- at one’s command
- fairly
- limited
- vocabulary
- thrust
Yet their present development is wholly different, not so much because of different people even, but because of the different thoughts that exist in the minds of their inhabitants.
For the women of my generation who were urged to keep juggling through the 80’s, down-shifting in the min'90s is not so much a search for the mythical good life-growing your own organic vegetables, and risking rurning into one-as a personal recognition of your limitations.
Humans should not try to avoid stress any more than they would shun food, love or exercise. 人类不应该逃避压力，就像他们不应该逃避食物、爱情或运动一样。
- stress 压力
- shun 躲避
Nobody (with any sense) expects to find the whole truth in advertisement any more than he expects a man (applying for a job) to describe his shortcomings and more serious faults.
Apart from their profession, scientists are inherently no more honest or ethical than other people.
The technique of writing is no less difficult than that of the other arts.
The man is not more successful than I.
高级
强调
It is who/which/that …
强调成分：主语、宾语、表语、状语
It was Frank who/that won the race.
It was because … that he was …
I love soccer. -> I do love soccer.
It’s necessary that you should wear a suit to attend the meeting.
It was my proposal that the committee finally adopted.(强调宾语)
It was not until his third match in 1790 that he finally beat Humphries and became Champion of England.(强调时间状语)
But, in contrast, it is only in modern times that Galileo has become a problem child for historians of science.(强调时间状语)
It is only someone looking on from outside that can inject the dangerous thoughts.
It was (from the study of these two waves) that so much was learnt about the inerior of the Earth.
It is only in the seas and rivers, and sometimes lakes, where mud and silt have been continuously deposited, that bodies and the like can be rapidly covered over and perserved.
It is the ideal condition of the “equal start” which only our most progressive forms of education try to regain.
It is almost always due to some very special circumstances that traces of land animals survice, as by falling into inaccessible caves, or into an ice crevasse.
It is this instinct that underwrite his survival.
省略
- 并列结构中的省略
- 状语从句省略
Teachers live by selling knowledge, philosophers by selling wisdom and priests by selling spiritual comfort.
In note-taking, a strict discipline has to be kept and all inessential details ignored and unnecessary word eliminated.
Failing hips can be replaced, clinical depression controlled, cataracts removed in a 30-minute surgical procedure.
Educated men are superior to uneducated men as the living are (superior) to the dead.
The railway companies, though still private business managed for the benefit of shareholders, were very unlike old business.
The real problem is that Western governments continue to insist (that they retain controls of the key global economic and financial institution) (while drifting away from global liberalization.)
While doing sth
倒装
完全倒装
- here/there
- into the forest, under the tree
- now/then
Here came the bus.
Into the forest ran the small rabbit.
Now is the time to tell him the truth.
Herein lies (the paramount reason (for the awful tension) man experiences today in relation to society.)
Under his umbrella come bullies, rapists, racists, psychopaths and members of street gangs and organized crime.
In the first category are considerations for the weak and respect for age.
There exists a social and cultural disconnect between journalists and their readers.
At their disposal will be the same options (the producer of the recorded programmer has:) to select replays, to choose which camera to use and to decide on the sound-whether to hear the public, the players, the trainers and so on.
部分倒装
- not, nor, never, seldom, little, hardly, scarcely
- by no means, not in the least, on no account, in no way, in no case, under no circumstances, under no condition
- no sooner… than…
- hardly/scarcely…when…
- not unitl
- not only…but also…
- only+状语
- so
Only in recent years have people begun to realize that wild dogs, kept within bounds, often do more good than harm.(利大于弊)
Only then will students develop the analytical skills required to think intelligently and creatively.
Only with the death of the last man will the revolt that is the essence of his nature also die.
So great is our passion for doing things for ourselves that we are becoming increasingly less dependent on specialized labour.
So involved with their computers do the children become that leaders at summer computer camps often have to force them to break for sports and games.
Not until 1866 was the fully successful transatlantic cable finally laid.
Not only can walking fish live out of water, but they can also travel short distances over land.
Nor does the hypothesis (that infantile amnesia reflects repression-or holding back-of sexually charged episodes) explain the phenomenon.
否定
双重否定
impossible is nothing
Cats never fail to fascinate human human beings.
Visitors to China will seldom fail to notice the eagerness of the Chinese to learn English.
It is not uncommon to see children wearing designer jeans and the latest trainers.
Hardly a week goes by without some advance in technology that would have seemed incredible 50 years ago.
部分否定
Not all sounds made by animals serve as language
All men are not good. 不是所有男人都坏。
Everyone can not have such good luck=not everyone can have such good luck
Both of us are not right = One of use is right, and the other is wrong.
否定转移
表面否定A，实则否定B。
think, argue, suppose, believe, imagine, expect, appear, seem
He was not ready to believe something just because the ancients said so.
be ready to do sth 愿意
They were not about to change their tastes and habits just because of a change in the law.
特殊否定
cannot/can never/can hardly + too/enough/over
One can’t be too careful in making the decision as it was such a critical case.
A woman can never be too rich or too thin.
The importance of family education cannot be overemphasized.