World History

Words and Phrases

king/queen
social differentiation 社会分层，社会分工 status，阶级
foes/enemy 敌人
cradle of agriculture 农业的摇篮
paradime 天堂
decimated 大量毁灭,大批杀死
homo sapiens 智人
maritime superpower 海上超级大国
prolific trade 丰富的贸易
Carthage 迦太基
willpower, determination and discipline 意志力、决心和纪律
paleolithic 旧石器时代
neolithic 新石器时代
Mesopotamia 美索不达米亚
prosperity 繁荣
millennium 千年
Nile river 尼罗河
Ancient Egypt
sedentary 固定，定居的，坐着的
outskirt 郊区
nomadic 游牧民族
Phoenicians 腓尼基人（经商，24个字母，构成26个字母）, Syria, Lebanon, northern Israel. purple dye
ingots of copper and tin 铜锭和锡锭
faience objects 彩陶对象
groves 树林
Hebrews 希伯来人（以色列）
enigma 难解之谜（金字塔）
印度，中东历史文字缺失
Aryans 雅利安人（大草原，Caste and Class 种姓制度）
Caste 种姓制度
The Mauryan Empire 孔雀王朝(印度)
The Assyrian Empire 亚述王国(叙利亚)
The Persian Empire 波斯帝国（土耳其，伊朗）
The Rule of the Fishes 鱼类生存的法则
aristocracy 军阀/贵族统治
The Exuberant World of Indian Culture 旺盛
Grains: Grain is the harvested seed of grasses such as wheat, oats, rice, and corn.
justice n. 正义，公道
dawn 黎明
The Shang Dynasty 商朝，河南安阳（殷墟）
Minoan Crete 克里特岛
Dark Age
city-states 城邦（希腊，本地不适合农业）
Tyranny 农民统治，暴民统治
Athens 雅典，强调民主议事
Mediterranean 地中海
Sparta 斯巴达（Laconia）武士
Polis 政治
just 正义，公正
justify 证明合法（联系：师出有名，做事的动机，司法机关）
Maya 文化
Aztec 文化
Judiciary 司法机关
hero and villain 英雄和坏人
ruler/leader
empire 帝国
emperor 皇帝，君主
authority 权力
territory 领地
civilization 文明
dialect 方言
agriculture 农业
framland 农田
irrigation 灌溉
sugarcane 甘蔗
cane 甘蔗
kick-started 启动
a dearth of precious metal 贵金属短缺
lucrative settlements 有利可图的定居点
drought 干旱
nobles and peasants 贵族和农民
pharaoh: a king of Egypt. 法老 god-king of Egypt.
Mandate of Heaven 天命
civic 公民的
secular authority 世俗权威
patriarch 族长;(男性)家长;(东正教和天主教的)牧首;宗主教;酋长;德高望重的男长者
alms 救济金
arable land 耕地
arable 适于耕种的
exotic 外来物，进口的，舶来品，异国情调的
artifacts 史前古器物
clans 氏族
momentous 重要的
cramped 狭窄的,拥挤的,confined
abruptly 突然
hereditary hierarchies 世袭等级制度
cortex 大脑皮层皮质
egalitarian 平等主义
ushered in 迎来了
chattel slavery 动产奴隶制
leisure 闲暇
lavish 奢侈的
luxury 奢侈
spiraling 螺旋式
dreadful 可怕的
rigid social class 严格的社会阶层
harshly 严厉地
stratified 分层
status 社会地位
inequility 不平等
class 阶级
happiness and prosperity 幸福与繁荣
sail v./n. 帆,起航,航行
voyage n. 航行，游历
preaching 说教，讲道
airy mosques 通风的清真寺
drab and gloomy 单调而灰暗
feudal system 封建制度
superstition 迷信
devout missionaries 虔诚的传教士
barbarian 野蛮人
savage 野蛮
brute 野蛮
bishops and cardinals 主教和红衣主教
monks and nuns 僧侣和修女
raid 突袭
warrior 战士，勇士
berserker 狂暴战士
sailor 海员，水手
battle tactics
lord and vassal 领主和附庸
serfs 农奴
whirlwind tour 旋风之旅
Catholic 天主教
Pope 教皇
armor 盔甲
bow 弓
famine 饥荒
plague 瘟疫
lymph glands 淋巴腺
warfare 战争
destitute 贫困
pottery 陶器。used for store grain or cook.
strife 冲突
forge 锻造; forge the greatest empire
invasion and slaughter 入侵和屠杀
pay tribute 致敬
account 记事，账户
siege engines 攻城器械
siege 围城
moat 护城河
barbaric 野蛮
secular 世俗的
resorting to ruthless or immoral means 诉诸残忍或不道德的手段
exerted relentless control of local tribes 对当地部落进行无情的控制
exert 竭尽全力
unheard of 闻所未闻
divition of labour
social stratification 社会分层
stern spartans 严厉的斯巴达人
empire’s demise 帝国的灭亡
sack a city 洗劫一个城市
dynasty 王朝
bronze age 青铜时代 A metal alloy (= mix of metals) of gold-like color created by combining copper and other metals, mostly tin, in the ancient world. It is significantly more robust than copper alone.
revolt 反叛，起义，暴动，作乱
cradle 摇篮，发祥地
annex 吞并
culminate 达到顶峰
oligarchy 寡头政治
hunter-gather society
herders 牧民
mesoamerica 中美洲
mesopotamia 美索不达米亚
diffuse spread 扩散
obsessed with 执着(fixation on)
marching legions 行军军团，地面部队
legions 军团，军队
disdain 轻视，蔑视
virtually 几乎，实质上，简直
might 可能，威力，强权
imitator 模仿者
consciously 有意识地
philosophy: the study of the basic principles of knowledge.
science: knowledge focused on facts based on observation, identification, description, investigation, and explanation.
theory: explanation that has not been proven as fact.
democracy: system of organization or government where the people decide policies or elect representatives to do so.
freedom of speech: right to express one’s opinions freely, without fear of censorship or social sanction
inquiry: series of questions or an investigation into an event.
economy stumbles: 经济陷入困境
stumble 绊倒,蹒跚
tarnished: 失去光泽的
Socratic method: instructional strategy in which questions are used to elicit an idea, admission, or set of answers.
symposium: large meeting or conference on a specific subject.
proliferate: 增生
satire: work of art that makes fun of ideas and social convention through use of irony, sarcasm, and ridicule.
entertainment:performance or material produced to interest and amuse.
gunpowder empire 火药帝国
arts and architecture 艺术与建筑
stagnate 停滞
hegemony 霸权
mughals 莫卧儿人
subcontinent 次大陆
confederacy 联盟
humanism 人道主义
potent weapon 有力的武器
heresy 异端
Ottomans 奥斯曼人
inquisition 审问，宗教裁判所
prosecute 起诉
judizing and blasphemy 审判和亵渎
militaristic and imperialist 军国主义和帝国主义
stark increase 明显增加
endeavors 努力 effort, strive
ravging waters 肆虐的水域
bandit 土匪
exiled 被流放
executed 被处决
pursue economic interests
financial toll 财务损失
mill 工厂，磨坊
death toll 死亡人数
toll 收费
liberty, equality, fraternity 自由、平等、博爱(法国大革命的理念之一)
lead 铅（白色）
arsenic poisoning 砷（绿色）中毒
uranium 铀（红色）
moral dilemmas 道德困境
retaliate 报复
defeat n./v. 打败
subjugating v. 征服
surrender 投降
Allies 盟国
adversary 对手
citizenship 国籍，公民权
helots: Helots were responsible for agricultural duties and other day-to-day tasks that supported the Spartans.
combat: to fight
hostile: confrontational or unfriendly.
quarrel: to dispute or argue.
treaty: official agreement between groups of people.
territory: land an animal, human, or government protects from intruders.
Acropolis: large, flat-topped hill that is the highest point of the city of Athens, Greece.
aristocracy:elite group of people based on wealth or social status.
commerce: trade, or the exchange of goods and services.
democracy: system of organization or government where the people decide policies or elect representatives to do so.
monarchy: system of government in which national power is invested in one person, usually a king or queen.
aesthetics 美学 study of beauty
dedicate: to sincerely devote time and effort to something.
democracy: system of organization or government where the people decide policies or elect representatives to do so.
ethics: beliefs about what is right and wrong.
flourish: 繁荣
temple: building used for worship.
zoology: the study of animals.
taming the wild horse: 驯服野马
prominent: He came from a prominent family in Athens.
corpus: 语料库
oath 誓言
statesman 政治家
voting: Voters in Arlington, Virginia, cast ballots in a presidential election.
ratified: The United States Constitution was ratified in 1789 and outlines a framework for the national government. It is the supreme law of the United States.
Congress: legislative branch of the government, responsible for making laws. The U.S. Congress has two bodies, the House of Representatives and the Senate.
constitution 宪法
democratic: having to do with a government led by its citizens, who vote for policies and/or representatives.
Electoral College: electors representing all 50 states and the District of Columbia, responsible for officially electing the President and Vice-President of the United States.
ethics: beliefs about what is right and wrong.
felony: serious crime with punishment including imprisonment or death.
human rights: basic freedoms belonging to every individual, including the rights to social and political expression, spirituality, and opportunity.
invader: organism that enters an area to take control of it.
jury: group of people selected to determine facts in a specific case.
philosophy: the study of the basic principles of knowledge.
proponent: supporter or advocate of something.
representative: someone or something who acts in place of a group of people.
urban: having to do with city life.
tenet: a principle or belief, especially one of the main principles of a religion or philosophy.
exercised: In the case of the United States, that power is exercised indirectly, through elected representatives.
Still other languages die out due to political oppression or** social assimilation**.
lineage: line of descendants of a particular ancestor.
linguist: person who studies language.
linguistics: study of language.
origin: source or ancestry.
tribe: community made of one or several family groups sharing a common culture.
protolanguage 原始语言
military mutinies 军事叛变
pasant 农民起义
worker strikes 工人罢工
monarch(ruler, emperor): 君主，国王
surrender v. 投降
social upheaval 社会剧变
spice trade 香料贸易
stalemate 僵局
mobilizing the people 动员人们
aftermath 后果
doctrine 主义
Zen 禅
Zionism 犹太复国
ziggurat 巴比伦的金字塔
welfare state 福利国家
Warsaw Pact
unconditional surrender 无条件投降
utopian socialists
vassal 地主（诸侯）
vernacular 白话，行话
viceroy 总督
tyranny: rule by a tyrant
tribute system 进贡系统
trench warfare 壕沟战
entrenched 固定的
tithe 十分之一的税（宗教收取）
three obediences
three-field system 休耕制度
fallow 休耕
theocracy 神权统治
social Darwinism 社会达尔文主义
socratic method 苏格拉底式方法，问答式教学方法
sophists 诡辩家，博学家
sublime porte 奥斯曼帝国时期的宫殿
suffrage: 选举权 the right to vote(女性，黑人)
stoicism: 接受命运，放弃欲望
shogunate system: 幕府制度
Rococo: style 哥特式，巴洛克，洛可可
reparation 赔款
Renaissance 文艺复兴(1350-1550):弱化宗教，回归希腊文化
第一次工业革命 1750
美国建国 1776
scholar-gentry 大学士
satyagraha 非暴力反抗运动
proletariat 物产阶级
predestination 之前就决定了命运
lot 命运
primogeniture 长子继承制
popular sovereignty
portolani 港口和土地
pantheism 泛神论
patriarchal family
patriarchy
Pax Romana
obsidian: a kind of volcanic glass was used to make sharp blades
grinding flour 磨粉
mill n./v. 磨坊,磨
bronze: an alloy mixture of copper and tin making it more durable
stockpiling: 大量储备
taming the rivers 治理河流
tame 驯服
harapan phase 哈拉帕期
dagger 匕首🗡️
fighting and bloodshed 战斗和流血
drainage system 排水系统
traits 特点
egalitarian 平等主义
pictographs 象形字
cramped and crowded 拥挤拥挤
collapsed 倒塌
pastoralist 牧民
peasants 农民
iron plow 铁犁
oligarchic 寡头政治的
satrap 总督
dowry 嫁妆
brahmin 婆罗门
remnant 残余
epics 史诗
clans 氏族
battles and bloodshed 战斗和流血
spears 矛
hellenized 希腊化的
screw 螺旋桨 Archimedes
hedonism and physical pleasure 享乐主义和身体愉悦
happiness was the main goal of life
ritual 仪式
majestic buildings 雄伟的建筑
envious 羡慕
magistrates 地方法官
brigade 旅
annex 吞并(territories)
homo sapiens 智人
uncivilized savages 未开化的野蛮人
inclusive：包容性（culture）
advance this claim 提出这个主张
UNESCO 联合国教科文组织
crops 农作物
disenfranchise 剥夺公民权
epic adventures 史诗冒险
condemn 谴责
Native Americans are entitled to their land 美洲原住民有权拥有他们的土地
truce 休战
retaliate 报复
assault 进攻
acropolis 卫城 large, flat-topped hill that is the highest point of the city of Athens, Greece.
aesthetics: study of beauty. 美学
flourish:to thrive or be successful.
personal salvation 个人救赎
cast ballots 投票
momentous 重大的
felony 重罪
mines and mills 矿山和工厂
ruin, remains of a destroyed building or set of buildings.
reservoir, large, concentrated supply or reserve.
dike, a barrier, usually a natural or artificial wall used to regulate water levels.
beasts of burden, 负重的牲畜
chariot 战车
tomb 墓
Sarcophagi 石棺
mummy 木乃伊
pharaoh 法老（King of Egypt）
eternal 永恒
general: highest rank of leadership in armies and air forces.
reign 统治
revolution 革命，改革
cuneiform 楔形文字（美索不达米亚）
relegate v. 降级
esteem v. 尊重
esteemed postions
indigenous 当地的，土著的，土的
beverage 饮料
modest wood and thatch home: 简陋的木制和茅草屋🛖
flock to: to move or come together in large numbers: flock to Hundreds of people flocked to the football match.
besiege 包围，围困；打扰，纠缠
chief 首领 leader
collision 碰撞，冲突
conflict 冲突
continent 大陆

The three-age system

Stone Age(3.4 million years - 3000 B.C.E)

The Stone Age was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make stone tools with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted for roughly 3.4 million years[1] and ended between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC, with the advent of metalworking.[2] It therefore represents nearly 99.3% of human history.

Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic.

Bronze Age (3000 B.C.E.–1200 B.C.E.)

The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting from approximately 3300 BC to 1200 BC. It is characterized by the use of bronze, the use of writing in some areas, and other features of early urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second principal period of the three-age system proposed in 1836 by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen for classifying and studying ancient societies and history. It is also considered the second phase of three, in the Metal Ages.

Iron Age(1200 B.C.E. -)

Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of large-scale global iron production about 1200 BC, marking the end of the Bronze Age. The Iron Age in Europe is often considered as a part of the Bronze Age collapse in the ancient Near East.

Culture VS Civilization

Culture: literature, art… 无形的
Civilization: 有型的器物层面，城市，纪念碑，博物馆

culture
learned behavior of people, including their languages, belief systems, social structures, institutions, and material goods. Also: a group of people that share the same cultural traits and values.

To ensure a separation of powers, the U.S. Federal Government is made up of three branches: legislative, executive and judicial.

Egypt -> Mesopotamia -> Ancient Greece

蒙古的兴起：马匹的使用，风餐露宿，射箭。高机动部队。

阿拉伯是世界的HUB，亚洲和欧洲的链接。阿拉伯是世界物资中转中心。穆罕默德的驼队，积累财富。

非洲像南美洲，水和森林比较多，各个部落自给自足，基本都停留在打猎采集阶段。

非洲，尼罗河流域，埃及，后来又马其顿部队的托勒密家族托管。

印度：本地不吃牛（以牛为神），草原（steppe）人吃牛，伊斯兰不吃猪肉

Ancient Greece(1200 BC - 600 AD)

Ancient Greece was made up of two penisulas in the Mediterranean Sea: Attica and Peloponnesus(400 islands). Much of its mainland was covered with hills and mountains. So the ancient Greeks depended on the sea for food and trade.

Athens is the birthplace of democracy
Peloponnesian War(431 BC - 404 BC, Athens and Sparta)
city-states(independent from each other)
Alexander the Great died in 323 BC
Alexander destroyed the Persian Empire and conquered much of Western Asia and Northern Africa.

Ancient Roman Empire(700 BC - 1450 AD)

formed by the brothers Romulus and Remus on the Italian peninsula in 753 BC
Punic Wars: Romans battled Carthage in three separate wars
Western Rome invaded by Germanic in 476 AD
Eastern Rome(Byzantine Empire) lasted to 1450 AD

Middle Ages 中世纪(500 AD - 1500 AD)

The period between the fall of Rome(476 AD) and 1400s.

Major developments include the predominance of agriculture in the economy, the exploitation of the peasantry, slow interregional communication, the importance of interpersonal relations in power structures, and the fragility of state bureaucracy.

The Renaissance 文艺复兴(14th - 17th Century)

中世纪时期，复兴古希腊的文化。意大利：佛罗伦萨，罗马。

The Americas 美洲文明

Zapotecs
Maya
Aztecs
Mesoamerica
Inka
Moche
Caral

Priest & Kings
Wealthy Merchants
Ordinary Citizens
Slaves

American History

Industrializaion of US in 19th Century（steel and oil）

As the country shifted from agricultural to industrial base, political shifts too. Take the steel industry as an example. They created a monopoly, the called vertical integration, which controls the mining, trasportation, manufactuing, and selling of the steel industry.

Goverment didn’t have much laws or regulations against them, just because their products promoted the economy and they donate money into charities as well. The price and wages are controled by these monoploies. They also created an kind of management system called Trust, in which most of the companies in the same industry are brought and controlled by one company in order to control the price.

Later, as more and more people accused these companies about price control and inequlities treatment of wages. Government passed some new laws, about regulating the price and trust prevention.

political clout. 政治影响力
get ore from the mine to the mill 将矿石从矿山转移到工厂
Oil: John D. Rockefeller 洛克菲勒
Steel: Andrew Carnegie 卡内基
Trust: a trust created a single, central management team. And that team directed the activities of what otherwise still appeared to be independent companies.
make contribution

The American Government

Declaration of Independence(July 04, 1776): independent from England(Independent Day)
The Constitution(宪法，最高法律 supreme law): created the three branches of government and explained each one’s duties.(made United States a country and established its laws)
Bill of Rights: amended the constitution and gave various rights to the people.(ten amendments, people feared the federal government would become too powerful)
delegate 代表
petion 请求
founding fathers: Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, George Washington
inalienable rights 不可剥夺的权利: life, liberty, the pursuit of happiness
American Government: excutive, legislative, judicial

The Bill of Rights protects the basic rights that every American has. Among the freedoms promised in the Bill of Rights are those of speech, religion and assembly.

The Election System of the United States

Every four years, Americans elect a president. A candidate must win the nomination of his or her political party at the national convention. The Electoral College makes the final vote for president.

democracy: a type of government in which power is held by the people.

The American Civil War(美国内战，南北战争, a war to end slavery)

北方不支持奴隶，南方依赖奴隶的发展。

Abraham Lincoln was president of the United States and kept the Union together(opponent of slavery)
General Ulysses S. Grant was the leader of all Union military forces.
General Robert E. Lee was the leader of all Confederate military forces.

By the 1850s, North’s economy was industrial and had many factories. The South’s economy was focused on agriculture. Tabacco and cotton were especially important cash crops in the South. To run the plantations, slave labor bacame a central part of life in the South. In most Northern states, slavery was illegal.

secede from the Union 脱离

President Lincoln declared that all slaves in the Confederate states were free. This marked a turning point in the war.

The central cause of the war was the dispute over whether slavery would be permitted to expand into the western territories, leading to more slave states, or be prevented from doing so, which many believed would place slavery on a course of ultimate extinction.

Post-Civil War

President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated only a few days after the war ended
The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution made slavery illegal in the country
Union troops remained in the South until Reconstruction ended in 1877
amnesty 大赦: forgiveness, often concerning a legal matter.
Black Codes: laws restricted the basic right of blacks to own property and to engage in certain businesses.

The Thirteenth Amendment made slavery illegal. The b says that everyone born in the United States is automatically a citizen of the United States and has the right to get “equal protection” under the law. The fifteenth Amendment makes it illegal for the state and federal governments to discriminate against people because of their race or color.

The Nation Grows

What were some inventions that helped improve people’s lives in the nineteenth century?

telephone: communicate over long idstances 电话
electric light and phonograph 电灯和留声机
steam locomotive 蒸汽机车

Words:

Industrialization and Urbanization 工业化和城市化
enact regulations
monopolies 垄断
expansion
spur
transcontinental railroad
working conditions
unions 工会
emerged 出现
dominated the … industry

War and Revolution(World War I, 1914-1918)

European countries competed for colonies in Africa and Asia
The Europeans often treated their colonies poorly
Feelings of nationalism arose in Europe and in other places around the world

Industrial Reveoution(1750-1830): the period of time when goods began to be made by machines.

mass production

Imperialism(帝国注意，比如大英帝国，对外殖民):a policy of extending a country’s power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means.

Imperialism caused many problems. The Europeans often treated their colonies poorly. The people who were colonized were abused and led poor lived. The Europeans also ignored these countries’ histories, traditions and cultures. Then this leads to nationalism.

Nationalism is extreme pride in belonging to a country or ethnic group.

Eventually, these conflicts and the feelings of nationalism among European nations caused World War I to begin. 最终，这些冲突和欧洲国家之间的民族主义情绪导致了第一次世界大战的爆发。

History of African-Americans( New Negro Renaissance.)

to conceive 受孕
veterans 退伍军人

World War II(1939 to 1945)

Second World War was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945. The vast majority of the world’s countries, including all the great powers, fought as part of two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis(同盟国与轴心国).

dictatorship
propaganda
fascist
totalitarian 极权主义
aggressively
Allies
Axis Powers
turning point
surrendered
atomic bombs
espionage 间谍

Totalitarianism（极权主义） is a political system and a form of government that prohibits opposition political parties, disregards and outlaws the political claims of individual and group opposition to the state, and controls the public sphere and the private sphere of society.

Axis Powers: German(Hitler), Italy and Japan.（发动战争）
Allies: England, France and Russia

阿道夫·希特勒，德国政治人物，艺术家，纳粹党领袖，1933年至1945年担任德国总理，1934年至1945年兼任元首。1939年9月发动波兰战役，导致第二次世界大战在欧洲爆发。希特勒是纳粹大屠杀的主要策划者、发动者，有证据显示他知晓并下达了对犹太人的屠杀命令。

Jobs and Occupations

shipwrights 造船师
merchant 商人
scribes 文士（老师，文员）
private tutors
artist
musician
construction workers
canel builders
bakers
basket makers
butchers 屠夫
fishermen 渔夫
cup bearers
brick makers
brewers 酿酒师
prostitutes 妓女
metallurgists 冶金学家
carpenters 木匠
perfume makers
potters
jewelry makers
goldsmiths 金匠
cart and chariot drivers 马车和战车的司机
soldiers
sailors
esteemed postions 受人尊敬的职位
tavern keepers 酒馆老板
docters
dentists
tended horses 照料马匹

Slaves

The lowest social order was the slaves. One could become a slave in a number of ways: being captured in war, selling oneself into slavery to pay off a debt, being sold as punishment for a crime, being kidnapped and sold into slavery in another region, or being sold by a family member to relieve a debt. Slaves had no single ethnicity nor were they solely employed for manual labor. Slaves kept house, managed large estates, tutored young children, tended horses, served as accountants and skilled jewelry makers, and could be employed in whatever capacity their master saw they had a talent in. A slave who worked diligently for his or her master could eventually buy their freedom.

Goods

Perfumes

Perfumes were made by “steeping aromatic plants in water and blending their essence with oil”.

Europeans in the Americas

The Aztec(Mexico) Empire in Central America was defeated
The Inca(Peru) Empire in South America was destroyed by Francisco Pissarro
The Spanish enslaved Native Americans and took much treasure from the natives.

The First Frech and English Colonies

Spanish focused on Central(Mexico) and South America
France and England focused on North America(Canada)
Canada: the french mostly explored

Latin America(拉丁美洲, 美国以南的部分)

The Europeans invaded the South America. Latin means Latin language, European Language, Roman.

拉丁美洲，简称拉美，是美洲的一部分，狭义上包括了以拉丁语族语言为官方语言的美洲国家和地区；广义上包括了美国以南的全部美洲国家与地区。拉丁美洲拥有占地球陆地表面积将近13%的19,197,000平方公里陆地面积。截止2013年，拉丁美洲的人口估计超过6亿。

Among the most surprising findings was the ubiquity of defensive walls, ramparts, terraces, and fortresses.最令人惊讶的发现是无处不在的防御墙、壁垒、露台和堡垒。

The Greeks are often credited with pioneering a democratic government that went on to influence the structure of the United States.

All Greek city-states had sets of rules by which the people lived in observance and laws they were required to obey.

In the United States today, the rule of law is a principle that ensures that all laws are publicly accessible, equally enforced, and independently judged, and that they adhere to international human rights ethics.

Trade and Colonization 贸易和殖民

shipbuilding
curved hull 弯曲船体
extensive trade networks
branching out
search for commodities and raw materials
permanent settlements
market
manufactured goods
colonies and cities in their own right
shipwreck n/v 沉船;海难;船舶失事;失事的船(可以分析当时船上的货物，贸易)
goods and raw materials
ingots of copper and tin 铜锭和锡锭
wine and oil in storage vessels
silver and gold jewellery 金银首饰
faience objects 彩陶物体
glass 玻璃
textiles 纺织品
papyrus 纸莎草
wood 木材
wool 羊毛
spices 香料
pottery 陶器
food 食物
slaves 奴隶
Tyrian purple(purple dye) 泰尔紫,紫色染料(Phoenicians，south of Mediterranean Sea)
Greek Fire 希腊火(north of Mediterranean Sea)
metalwork 金工
ivory work 象牙制品

Agriculture

Fertile Crescent 新月沃地
Mesopotamia, mostly located in modern-day Iraq, defined by the alluvial plain of the rivers Euphrates and Tigris
food sources
sow 播种
grain 粮食
cereals 谷类
plow 犁地
crop 庄稼
manpower 人力，人手
shacks 棚屋
threshed 脱粒
regional crop yields
annual rainfall or irrigation variation
drought or flooding 干旱或洪水
precipitation 降水
underwent 遭受，经历
canals 运河
reservoir 水库
arid climate 干旱气候
floodplains 洪涝平原
dry up, harden, and crack
arable 可耕种
oxen 牛
sickles with flint blades 带燧石刀片的镰刀
paddles 桨
threshing 脱粒
millennium 千年
crop rotation: left fields fallow to maintain the fertility of the ground
manure 肥料
millet 小米
wheat 小麦
emmer 二粒小麦
Rye and oats 黑麦和燕麦
salt-tolerant
barley 大麦
sesame 芝麻
Olive oil
linen cloth 亚麻布
wool 羊毛
Figs, pomegranate, apple, and pistachio groves 无花果、石榴、苹果和开心果林
onions, garlic, and cucumbers 洋葱、大蒜和黄瓜
palm trees 棕榈树
granaries 粮仓
mongooses
palace and temples 宫殿和寺庙
perishable 易腐烂的
a long shelf-life 长保质期
饥荒

After threshing, the grain was separated from the chaff by winnowing, which was only possible in windy weather. In the granaries, mongooses were used to protect the store from mice (more so than cats, which were deemed unreliable).

There were two types of agriculture:

Dry agriculture without irrigation, where people mostly cultivated cereals and relied on rainfall, which was primarily practiced in the hill country of upper Mesopotamia and the Levant.
Irrigation agriculture, which was centered in the alluvial plains of Lower Mesopotamia.

It is thanks to agriculture and the abundance of cereals that the great city-states and empires of Mesopotamia were able to rise. Supporting a large-scale urban population and the division of labor into specialized trades was only possible by moving away from subsistence farming to an organized agricultural system that provided enough surplus to feed a large non-farming population. In that sense, agriculture laid the foundation for civilization.

king and nobility 国王和贵族
priests and priestesses 牧师
upper class
lower class
slaves

Government

empires 帝国

War

sacked and destroyed by … 被摧毁
kingdom 王朝
campaigns and conquests 战役和征服
holding dominance
remained in their shadow
invade 入侵
assimilate 吸收
slowly gaining power 慢慢获得力量
vassal state 属国
expansion 扩张
rebellion 反叛
he sacked Babylon, desecrated and sacked their temples 他洗劫了巴比伦，亵渎并洗劫了他们的神庙
take the throne 夺取王位
throne 王座
ruthless and cruelty 无情和残酷
reign 统治
subjugate 征服
in subjugating a significant amount of territory
conquer 征服
collapse 崩溃，坍塌
invincible 无敌的
regime 政权
siege warfare,攻城战
from the rise of … in 983 BCE to the downfall of … in 673 BCE

Language and Writing

Phoenician alphabet（英语和阿拉伯语的基础，英语中的24个字母来自腓尼基字母表）
cuneiform 楔形文字
pictograph 象形文字
biblical tales 圣经的故事

Writing was invented around c. 3600 BCE, most likely in response to long-distance trade which required some means of communication between manufacturer, seller, buyer, and distributor. The writing system, as noted, was known as cuneiform, which developed from simple pictographs. These images could only relay the subject of a message, however, such as beer (the most popular drink in Mesopotamia and another Sumerian invention), but not whether the beer was coming or going from a given destination. Writing allowed people to specify their messages regarding quantity, quality, and whether an item was being bought, sold, or intended for sacrifice at the temple. The Alulu beer receipt from the city of Ur in 2050 BCE is among the best examples of the commercial aspect of writing as it acknowledges the delivery of a quantity of beer to the buyer from the brewer, Alulu. In time, as cuneiform became more sophisticated, it was used to record laws, recipes, prayers, hymns, stories, legends, and epics such as the tale of Gilgamesh. It also encouraged the development of different genres such as Mesopotamian Naru Literature, which served to both entertain and encourage important cultural values.

cylinder seal and stamp seals

Mesopotamian Inventions

The wheel 车轮（The wheel was invented c. 3500 BCE for the production of ceramics ）
Mass-produced ceramics 批量生产的陶瓷
Mathematics（dividing land, creation of irrigation canals）
Time
Writing
Cylinder seals and envelopes 圆柱印章
Mass-produced bricks
Cities
The map
The sail 帆船
carts and wagons 推车和马车
24 hours and each hour with 60 minutes

US History

Transportation

Sail 帆船
carts and wagons 推车和马车

Such trade was made possible by the development of astronomy, which charted the stars and provided identifiable reference points in the night sky for travel.

Religions and Gods 宗教和神

god 神
prophet: 先知 spokesman or interpreter of a god(etomology: pro 先, phe 说)
patheon A pantheon , from Greek πάνθεον pantheon, literally “(a temple) of all gods” 所有神
deity 神
sacred 神圣的
worship 崇拜，朝拜
adept at interpreting signs and omens 善于解读符号和预兆
temple 庙
ceremony 仪式
pray 祈祷
prayer 祷文，祷词；祈祷，祷告；祈祷仪式
incense burning 烧香
libation pouring 奠酒
enigmatic sites 神秘的地点
site 地点
worship v/n 崇拜
god/idols/deity/holy 神偶像
divine 神的
sacred 神圣的
holy book: Bible/Koran
religious shrine 宗教圣地
pilgrimage 朝圣
sorcery and witchcraft 巫术和巫术
healer 治愈者
officiating at ceremonies 主持仪式
clergyman 牧师
clergy 牧师
sermon 讲道

世界上的主要宗教

印度（多神教）

Hinduism 印度教（教你脱离苦海，通过提升种姓阶级）
Buddhism 佛教（教你脱离苦海，通过觉悟成佛；痛苦的来源，欲望）
enlightenment 开悟（buddhism），佛教的最终目的
ganges river 恒河
Buddha 佛教徒
egalitarian society 平等社会（佛教）

中东伊斯兰教（Islam，一神教）

Koran 古兰经
muhammad 穆罕默德(受真主的委托传教)
Allah 真主（伊斯兰上帝）
pilgrimage 朝圣
pilgrims 朝圣者
Muslim 穆斯林（信仰伊斯兰教的人）
麦加
麦地那
耶路撒冷

西方基督教（Christianity，一神教）

New Testament 新约

中东犹太教（Judaism，一神教）

耶路撒冷

Sentences

The Roman legion(军团) was considered to be the best infantry.
罗马军团被认为是最好的步兵。

Rome’s debt to Greece was enormous.

In speculative philosophy and the sciences, the Romans made virtually no advance on early achievements. 在推理哲学和科学上，罗马人实际上没有超过前期希腊的成就。

This allowed the legion to outmaneuver(智取), surround, and destroy an enemy much faster than a similarly sized Greek army could.

The three Punic Wars were fought over many years and involved Rome and Carthage. The two fought for supremacy in the west, and the wars ended with the complete defeat of Carthage by Rome.
三场布匿战争持续多年，涉及罗马和迦太基。两人争夺西方霸权，战争以迦太基被罗马彻底击败而告终。

The Church leader in Rome is the pope and that in Constantinople is the patriarch.

Justinian is remembered as the greatest Byzantine emperor because of his codification(法典编纂) of the law.

The Five Pillars of Islam are: (1) the statement of faith, (2) the obligation to pray five times daily, (3) the giving of alms to the poor, (4) the requirement to fast during the month of Ramadan, and (5) the requirement to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during one’s lifetime.

A German mapmaker named the New World America in honor of Amerigo Vespucci, who is credited with being the first to realize that Columbus had actually found a previously unknown land.

Building small walls as deterrent. 威慑

The Han was plagued by many problems leading to sharp decline.

A civilization went into decline.

世界时期

世界大航海

寻找贸易渠道，寻找香料。

Topics

Early Food Production in Sub-Saharan Africa

haphazard 偶然 inundated 被淹没

How Do Countries Choose Their Capital Cities?

Largely, according to its geological positions.

defense
center of the country, not biased
administration(agriculture, trade and transportation)

References

The Ancient World